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mybb@mybb.ru (STUPID) — Fri, 09 Jan 2009 14:08:53 +0300

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mybb@mybb.ru (STUPID) — Fri, 09 Jan 2009 14:06:51 +0300

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mybb@mybb.ru (SnakE) — Wed, 31 Dec 2008 20:44:21 +0300

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mybb@mybb.ru (bombist) — Tue, 23 Dec 2008 17:46:59 +0300

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mybb@mybb.ru (bombist) — Mon, 22 Dec 2008 18:15:25 +0300

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mybb@mybb.ru (SnakE) — Mon, 22 Dec 2008 14:59:15 +0300

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mybb@mybb.ru (bombist) — Sun, 21 Dec 2008 16:27:18 +0300

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mybb@mybb.ru (�� ))) — Sun, 21 Dec 2008 00:32:58 +0300

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mybb@mybb.ru (bombist) — Sat, 20 Dec 2008 18:43:10 +0300

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mybb@mybb.ru (bombist) — Sat, 20 Dec 2008 17:30:43 +0300

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Confused words quiz

mybb@mybb.ru (ArbAlet69) — Wed, 17 Dec 2008 18:12:15 +0300

Quiz: Words Frequently Confused

Fill in the blank in each sentence by selecting the word you think most appropriate from the words in parentheses.

1. Don�t let my opinion _______________ your decision.
(affect, effect)
2. The railroad was ordered to _______________ a reduction in rates.
(affect, effect)
3. The drought has _______________ the corn crop in our vicinity.
(affected, effected)
4. St. Paul is the _______________ of the State of Minnesota.
(capital, capitol)
5. However, it is not the _______________ city in the state.
(principal, principle)
6. After studying journalism for a year, he decided that he was _______________ in it.
(disinterested, uninterested)
7. She was asked to be on the committee because she was _______________ person.
(a disinterested, an uninterested)
8. My mother is of Norwegian _______________.
(decent, descent)
9. Her parents _______________ from Sweden to this country in the 1890s.
(emigrated, immigrated)
10. The weather forecaster refused to _______________ whether there would be rain at the time of the game.
(prophecy, prophesy)
11. He said, however, that rain was _______________.
(eminent, imminent)
12. Let me _______________ an example to illustrate the point.
(cite, site, sight)
13. His parents wanted him to attend college but they could not _______________ him to do so.
(convince, persuade)
14. Do you mean to _______________ that I am not telling the truth?
(infer, imply)
15. From what you have said I have reason to _______________ it.
(infer, imply)
16. The committee chairmen in Congress belong to the _______________ political party.
(predominate, predominant)
17. Arizona is a _______________ climate for people suffering from respiratory diseases.
(healthful, healthy)
18. She recognized the words �All the world�s a stage� as an _______________ to Shakespeare.
(allusion, illusion)
19. The radio is another good _______________ of communication for this purpose.
(median, medium)
20. Nothing that he said afterward in his speech could _______________ from the favorable impression he made at first.
(detract, distract)
21. Tests showed that the soil was seriously lacking in _______________.
(phosphorous, phosphorus)
22. The home economist wishes to produce the most palatable, _______________, and nutritious product possible.
(economic, economical)
23. The student will learn from this course what colors V their coloring and figures.
(complement, compliment)
24. The prospect of a holiday greatly improved the students� _______________.
(moral, morale)
25. My lunch is incomplete if I do not have a _______________.
(desert, dessert)
26. For several summers I was a _______________ in a boys� camp.
(councilor, counselor)
27. This bill is so important that it must take _______________ over all others.
(precedence, precedents)
28. When dieting, a person must not _______________ weight too rapidly.
(lose, loose)
29. You might say that Eisenhower did not choose to run for a second term; he was _______________ to run.
(chosen, choosen)
30. To perform this exercise you must _______________ deeply.
(breath, breathe)
31. His experience have _______________ him to suspect everyone of dishonesty.
(lead, led)
32. For that work you should wear _______________ clothes.
(every day, everyday)
33. When we arrived the others had _______________ gone.
(all ready, already)
34. I make _______________ mistakes in punctuation than my roommate does.
(fewer, less)
35. The law, _______________ antagonizing labor, was difficult to administer.
(beside, besides)

(From Four Powers of Effective Communication: skills for effective learning / J. Michel Bennet. 122 pages. McGraw-Hill, Inc. USA 1991)

"Traditions and holidays of Great Britain"

mybb@mybb.ru (ArbAlet69) — Wed, 17 Dec 2008 18:10:41 +0300

"Traditions and holidays of Great Britain"

Traditions and holidays of Great Britain.

Every nation and every country has its own traditions and customs. Traditions make a nation special. Some of them are old-fashioned and many people remember them, others are part of people�s life. Some British customs and traditions are known all the world.

From Scotland to Cornwall, Britain is full of customs and traditions.
A lot of them have very long histories. Some are funny and some are
strange. But they are all interesting. There is the long menu of
traditional British food. There are many royal occasions. There are songs,
saying and superstitions. They are all part of the British way of life.
You cannot really imagine Britain without all its traditions, this
integral feature of social and private life of the people living on the
British Isles that has always been an important part of their life and
work.
English traditions can classified into several groups: traditions
concerning the Englishmen�s private life (child�s birth, wedding, marriage,
wedding anniversary); which are connected with families incomes; state
traditions; national holidays, religious holidays, public festival,
traditional ceremonies.
What about royal traditions? There are numerous royal traditions in
Britain, some are ancient, others are modern.
The Queen is the only person in Britain with two birthdays. Her real
birthday is on April 21st, but she has an �official� birthday, too. That is
on the second Saturday in June. And on the Queen�s official birthday, there
is a traditional ceremony called the Trooping of the Colour. It is a big
parade with brass bands and hundreds of soldiers at Horse Guard�s Parade in
London. A �regiment� of the Queen�s soldiers, the Guards, march in front of
her. At the front of the parade there is the regiment�s flag or �colour�.
Thousands of Londoners and visitors watch in Horse Guards� Parade. And
millions of people at home watch it on television. This custom is not very
old, but it is for very old people. On his or her one hundredth birthday, a
British person gets a telegram with congratulations from the Queen.
The changing of the Guard happens every day at Buckingham Palace, the
Queen�s home in London. The ceremony always attracts a lot of spectators �
Londoners as well as visitors � to the British capital.
So soldiers stand on front of the palace. Each morning these soldiers
(the �guard�) change. One group leaves and another arrives. In summer and
winter tourists stand outside the palace at 11:30 every morning and watch
the Changing of the Guard.
Traditionally the Queen opens Parliament every autumn. But Parliament,
not the Royal Family, controls modern Britain. The Queen travels from
Buckingham Palace to the Houses of Parliament in a gold carriage � the
Irish State Coach. At the Houses of Parliament the Queen sits on a �throne�
in the House of Lords. Then she reads the �Queen�s Speech�. At the State
Opening of Parliament the Queen wears a crown. She wears other jewels from
the Crown Jewels, too.
Every year, there is a new Lord Mayor of London. The Mayor is the
city�s traditional leader. And the second Saturday in November is always
the day for the Lord Mayor�s Show. This ceremony is over six hundred years
old. It is also London�s biggest parade.
The Lord Mayor drives to the Royal Courts of Justice in a coach. The
coach is two hundred years old. It is red and gold and it has six horses.
As it is also a big parade, people make special costumes and act
stories from London�s history.
In Britain as in other countries costumes and uniforms have a long
history.
One is the uniform of the Beefeaters at the tower of London. This came
first from France. Another is the uniform of the Horse Guards at Horse
Guard�s Parade, not far from Buckingham Palace. Thousands of visitors take
photographs of the Horse Guards.
Britannia is a symbol of Britain. And she wears traditional clothes,
too. But she is not a real person.
Lots of ordinary clothes have a long tradition. The famous bowler hat,
for example. A man called Beaulieu made the first one in 1850.
One of the British soldiers, Wellington, gave his name to a pair of
boots. They have a shorter name today � �Wellies�.
There is a very special royal tradition. On the River Thames there are
hundreds of swans. A lot of these beautiful white birds belong,
traditionally, to the king or queen. In July the young swans on the Thames
are about two months old. Then the Queen�s swan keeper goes, in a boat,
from London Bridge to Henley. He looks at all the young swans and marks the
royal ones. The name of this strange nut interesting custom is Swan Upping.
There are only six public holidays a year in Great Britain, that is
days on which people need not go in to work. They are: Christmas Day, Good
Friday, Easter Monday, Spring Bank Holiday and Late Summer Bank Holiday,
Boxing Day.
So the most popular holiday in Britain is Christmas. Christmas has
been celebrated from the earliest days of recorded history, and each era
and race has pasted a colourful sheet of new customs and traditions over
the old.
On the Sunday before Christmas many churches hold a carol service
where special hymns are sung. Sometimes carol singers can be heard in the
streets as they collect money for charity. There are a lot of very popular
British Christmas carols. Three famous ones are: �Good King Wenceslas�,
�The Holly and The Ivy� and �We Three Kings�.
Each year, hundreds of thousands of people all over the world send and
receive Christmas cards. Most of people think that exchanging cards at
Christmas is a very ancient custom but it is not right. In fact it is
barely 100 years old. The idea of exchanging illustrated greeting and
presents is, however, ancient. So the first commercial Christmas card was
produced in Britain in 1843 by Henry Cole, founder of the Victoria and
Albert Museum, London. The handcoloured print was inscribed with the words
�A Merry Christmas and A Happy New Year to you�. It was horizontally
rectangular in shape, printed on stout cardboard by lithography.
A traditional feature of Christmas in Britain is the Christmas tree.
Queen Victoria�s husband, Prince Albert, brought the German tradition (he
was German) to Britain. He and the Queen had a Christmas tree at Windsor
Castle in 1841. A few years after, nearly every house in Britain had one.
Traditionally people decorate their trees on Christmas Eve � that�s
December 24th. They take down the decorations twelve days later, on Twelfth
Night (January 5th).
An older tradition is Christmas mistletoe. People put a piece of this
green plant with its white berries over a door. Mistletoe brings good luck,
people say. Also, at Christmas British people kiss their friends and family
under the mistletoe.
Those who live away try to get back home because Christmas is a family
celebration and it is the biggest holiday of the year. As Christmas comes
nearer, everyone is buying presents for relatives and friends. At Christmas
people try to give their children everything they want. And the children
count the weeks, than the days, to Christmas. They are wondering what
presents on December 24th. Father Christmas brings their presents in the
night. Then they open them on the morning of the 25th.
There is another name for Father Christmas in Britain � Santa Claus.
That comes from the European name for him � Saint Nicholas. In the
traditional story he lives at the North Pole. But now he lives in big shops
in towns and cities all over Britain. Well, that�s where children see him
in November and December. Then on Christmas Eve he visits every house. He
climbs down the chimney and leaves lots of presents. Some people leave
something for him, too. A glass of wine and some biscuits, for example.
At Christmas everyone decorates their houses with holly, ivy colourful
lamps.
In Britain the most important meal on December 25th is Christmas
dinner. Nearly all Christmas food is traditional, but a lot of the
traditions are not very old. For example, there were no turkeys in Britain
before 1800. And even in the nineteenth century, goose was the traditional
meat at Christmas. But not now.
A twentieth-century British Christmas dinner is roast turkey with
carrots, potatoes, peas, Brussels sprouts and gravy. There are sausages and
bacon, too. Then, after the turkey, there�s Christmas pudding. Some people
make this pudding months before Christmas. A lot of families have their own
Christmas pudding recipes. Some, for example, use a lot of brandy. Others
put in a lot of fruit or add a silver coin for good luck. Real Christmas
puddings always have a piece of holly on the top. Holly bushes and trees
have red berries at Christmas time, and so people use holly to decorate
their houses for Christmas. The holly on the pudding is part of the
decoration.
Crackers are also usual at Christmas dinner. These came to Britain
from China in the nineteenth century. Two people pull a cracker. Usually
there is a small toy in the middle. Often there is a joke on a piece of
paper, too. Most of the jokes in Christmas crackers are not very good. Here
is on example:
Customer: Waiter, there�s a frog in my soup.
Waiter: Yes, sir, the fly�s on holidays.
A pantomime is a traditional English entertainment at Christmas. It is
meant for children, but adults enjoy is just as much. It is a very old form
of entertainment, and can be traced back to 16th century Italian comedies.
There have been a lot of changes over the years. Singing and dancing and
all kinds of jokes have been added; but the stories that are told are still
fairy tales, with a hero, a heroine, and a villain.
In every pantomime there are always three main characters. These are
the �principal boy�, the �principal girl�, and the �dame�. Pantomimes are
changing all the time. Every year, someone has a new idea to make them more
exciting or more up-to-date.
December 26th is Boxing Day. Traditionally boys from the shops in each
town asked for money at Christmas. They went from house to house on
December 26th and took boxes made of wood with them. At each house people
gave them money. This was a Christmas present. So the name of December 26th
doesn�t come from the sport of boxing � it comes from the boys� wooden
boxes. Now, Boxing Day is an extra holiday after Christmas Day.
Traditionally Boxing Day Hunts is a day for foxhunting. The huntsmen
and huntswomen ride horses. They use dogs, too. The dogs (fox hounds)
follow the smell of the fox. Then the huntsmen and huntswomen follow the
hounds. Before a Boxing Day hunt, the huntsmen and huntswomen drink not
wine. But the tradition of the December 26th hunt is changing. Now, some
people want to stop Boxing Day Hunts (and other hunts, too). They don�t
like foxhunting. For them it�s not a sport � it is cruel.
In England people celebrate the New Year. But it is not as widely or
as enthusiastically observed as Christmas. Some people ignore it completely
and go to bed at the same time as usual on New Year�s Eve. Many others,
however, do celebrate it in one way or another, the type of celebration
varying very much according to the local custom, family tradition and
personal taste.
The most common type of celebration is a New Year party, either a
family party or one arranged by a group of young people. And another
popular way of celebrating the New Year is to go to a New Year�s dance.
The most famous celebration is in London round the statue of Eros in
Piccadilly Circus where crowds gather and sing and welcome the New Year. In
Trafalgar Square there is also a big crowd and someone usually falls into
the fountain.
Every Year the people of Norway give the city of London a present.
It�s a big Christmas tree and it stands in Trafalgar Square. Also in
central London, Oxford Street and Regent Street always have beautiful
decorations at the New Year and Christmas. Thousands of people come to look
at them.
In Britain a lot of people make New Year Resolutions on the evening of
December 31st. For example, �I�ll get up early every morning next year�, or
�I�ll clean, my shoes every day�. But there is a problem. Most people
forget their New Year Resolutions on January 2nd.
But New Year�s Eve is a more important festival in Scotland then it is
in England, and it even has a special name. It is not clear where the
�Hogmanay� comes from, but it is connected with the provision of food and
drink for all visitors to your home on 31st December.
There is a Scottish song that is sung all over the world at midnight
on New Year�s Eve. It was written by Robert Burns, the famous Scottish
poet, and you may find some of the traditional words a bit difficult to
understand, but that�s the way it�s always sung � even by English people!
It was believed that the first person to visit one�s house on New
Year�s Day could bring good or bad luck. Therefore, people tried to arrange
for the person of their own choice to be standing outside their houses
ready to be let in the moment midnight had come.
Usually a dark-complexioned man was chosen, and never a woman, for she
would bring bad luck. The first footer was required to carry three
articles: a piece of coal to wish warmth, a piece of bread to wish food,
and a silver coin to wish wealth. In some parts of northern England this
pleasing custom is still observed. So this interesting tradition called
�First Footing�.
On Bank holiday the townsfolk usually flock into the country and to
the coast. If the weather is fine many families take a picnic � lunch or
tea with them and enjoy their meal in the open. Seaside towns near London,
such as Southend, are invaded by thousands of trippers who come in cars and
coaches, trains and bicycles. Great amusement parks like Southend Kursoal
do a roaring trade with their scenic railways, shooting galleries, water-
shoots, Crazy houses and so on. Trippers will wear comic paper hats with
slogans, and they will eat and drink the weirdest mixture of stuff you can
imagine, sea food like cockles, mussels, whelks, fish and chips, candy
floss, tea, fizzy drinks, everything you can imagine.
Bank holiday is also an occasion for big sports meeting at places like
the White City Stadium, mainly all kinds of athletics. There are also horse
race meetings all over the country, and most traditional of all, there are
large fairs with swings, roundabouts, a Punch and Judy show, hoop-la stalls
and every kind of side-show including, in recent, bingo. There is also much
boating activity on the Thames.
Although the Christian religion gave the world Easter as we know it
today, the celebration owes its name and many of its customs and symbols to
a pagan festival called Eostre. Eostre, the Anglo-Saxon goddess of
springtime and sunrise, got her name from the world east, where the
sunrises. Every spring northern European peoples celebrated the festival of
Eostre to honour the awakening of new life in nature. Christians related
the rising of the sun to the resurrection of Jesus and their own spiritual
rebirth.
Many modern Easter symbols come from pagan time. The egg, for
instance, was a fertility symbol long before the Christian era. The ancient
Persians, Greeks and Chinese exchanged eggs at their sping festivals. In
Christian times the egg took on a new meaning symbolizing the tomb from
which Christ rose. The ancient custom of dyeing eggs at Easter time is
still very popular.
The Easter bunny also originated in pre-Christian fertility lore. The
rabbit was the most fertile animal our ances tors knew, so they selected it
as a symbol of new life. Today, children enjoy eating candy bunnies and
listening to stories about the Easter bunny, who supposedly brings Easter
eggs in a fancy basket.
Also there is a spectacular parade on Easter. It is a truly
spectacular Easter Parade in Battersea Park. It is sponsored by the London
Tourist Board and is usually planned around a central theme related to the
history and attractions of London. The great procession, or parade, begins
at 3 p.m. but it is advisable to find a vantage-point well before that
hour.
On October 31st British people celebrate Halloween. It is undoubtedly
the most colourful and exciting holiday of the year. Though it is not a
public holiday, it is very dear to those who celebrate it, especially to
children and teenagers. This day was originally called All Hallow�s Eve
because it fell on the eve of All Saints� Day. The name was later shortened
to Halloween. According to old beliefs, Halloween is the time, when the
veil between the living and the dead is partially lifted, and witches,
ghosts and other super natural beings are about. Now children celebrate
Halloween in unusual costumes and masks. It is a festival of merrymaking,
superstitions spells, fortunetelling, traditional games and pranks.
Halloween is a time for fun.
Few holidays tell us much of the past as Halloween. Its origins
dateback to a time, when people believed in devils, witches and ghosts.
Many Halloween customs are based on beliefs of the ancient Celts, who lived
more than 2,000 years ago in what is now Great Britain, Ireland, and
northern France.
Every year the Celts celebrated the Druid festival of Samhain, Lord of
the Dead and Prince of Darkness. It fell on October 31, the eve of the
Druid new year. The date marked the end of summer, or the time when the sun
retreated before the powers of darkness and the reign of the Lord of Death
began. The Dun god took part in the holiday and received thanks for the
year�s harvest.
It was believed that evil spirits sometimes played tricks on October
31. They could also do all kinds of damage to property. Some people tried
to ward of the witches by painting magic signs on their barns. Others tried
to frighten them away by nailing a piece of iron, such as a horseshoe, over
the door.
Many fears and superstitions grew up about this day. An old Scotch
superstition was that witches � those who had sold their souls to the devil
� left in their beds on Halloween night a stick made by magic to look like
themselves. Then they would fly up the chime attended by a black cat.
In Ireland, and some other parts of Great Britain, it was believed,
that fairies spirited away young wives, whom they returned dazed and
amnesic 366 days later.
When Halloween night fell, people in some places dressed up and tried
to resemble the souls of the dead. They hoped that the ghosts would leave
peacefully before midnight. They carried food to the edge of town or
village and left it for the spirits.
In Wales, they believed that the devil appeared in the shape of a pig,
a horse, or a dog. On that night, every person marked a stone and put it in
a bonfire. If a person�s stone was missing the next morning, he or she
would die within a year.
Much later, when Christianity came to Great Britain and Ireland, the
Church wisely let the people keep their old feast. But it gave it a new
association when in the 9th century a festival in honour of all saints (All
Hallows) was fixed on November 1. In the 11th century November 2 became All
Souls� Day to honour the souls of the dead, particularly those who died
during the year.
Christian tradition included the lighting of bonfires and carring
blazing torches all around the fields. In some places masses of flaming
staw were flung into the air. When these ceremonies were over, everyone
returned home to feast on the new crop of apples and nuts, which are the
traditional Halloween foods. On that night, people related their experience
with strange noises and spooky shadows and played traditional games.
Halloween customs today follow many of the ancient traditions, though
their significance has long since disappeared.
A favourite Halloween custom is to make a jack-j�-lantern. Children
take out the middle of the pumpkin, cut hole holes for the eyes, nose and
mouth in its side and, finally, they put a candle inside the pumpkin to
scare their friends. The candle burning inside makes the orange face
visible from far away on a dark night � and the pulp makes a delicious
pumpkin-pie.
People in England and Ireland once carved out beets, potatoes, and
turnips to make jack-o�-lanterns on Halloween. When the Scots and Irish
came to the United States, they brought their customs with them. But they
began to carve faces on pumpkins because they were more plentiful in autumn
than turnips. Nowadays, British carve faces on pumpkins, too.
According to an Irish legend, jack-o�-lanterns were named for a man
called Jack who was notorious for his drunkenness and being stingy. One
evening at the local pub, the Devil appeared to take his soul. Clever Jack
persuaded the Devil to �have one drink together before we go�. To pay for
his drink the Devil turned himself into a sixpence. Jack immediately put it
into his wallet. The Devil couldn�t escape from it because it had a catch
in the form of a cross. Jack released the Devil only when the latter
promised to leave him in peace for another year. Twelve months later, Jack
played another practical joke on the Devil, letting him down from a tree
only on the promise that he would never purse him again. Finally, Jack�s
body wore out. He could not enter heaven because he was a miser. He could
not enter hell either, because he played jokes on the Devil. Jack was in
despair. He begged the Devil for a live coal to light his way out of the
dark. He put it into a turnip and, as the story goes, is still wandering
around the earth with his lantern.
Halloween is something called Beggars� Night or Trick or Treat night.
Some people celebrate Beggars� Night as Irish children did in the 17th
century. They dress up as ghosts and witches and go into the streets to
beg. And children go from house to house and say: �Trick or treat!�,
meaning �Give me a treat or I�ll play a trick on you�. Some groups of
�ghosts� chant Beggars� Night rhymes:
Trick or treat,
Smell our feet.
We want something
Good to eat.
In big cities Halloween celebrations often include special decorating
contests. Young people are invited to soap shop-windows, and they get
prizes for the best soap-drawings.
In old times, practical jokes were even more elaborate. It was quite
normal to steal gates, block house doors, and cover chimneys with turf so
that smoke could not escape. Blame for resulting chaos was naturally placed
on the �spirits�.
At Halloween parties the guests wear every kind of costume. Some
people dress up like supernatural creatures, other prefers historical or
political figures. You can also meet pirates, princesses, Draculas,
Cinderellas, or even Frankenstein�s monsters at a Halloween festival.
At Halloween parties children play traditional games. Many games date
back to the harvest festivals of very ancient times. One of the most
popular is called bobbing for apples. One child at a time has to get apples
from a tub of water without using hands. But how to do this? By sinking his
or her face into the water and biting the apple!
Another game is pin-the-tail-on-the �donkey. One child is blind folded
and spun slowly so that he or she will become dizzy. Then the child must
find a paper donkey haging on the wall and try to pin a tail onto the back.
And no Halloween party is complete without at least one scary story.
It helps too create an air of mystery.
Certain fortunetelling methods began in Europe hundreds of years ago
and became an important part of Halloween. For example, such object as a
coin, a ring, and a thimble were baked into a cake or other food. It was
believed that the person who found the coin in the cake would become
wealthy. The one who found the ring would marry soon, but the person who
got the thimble would never get married.
Unfortunately now most people do not believe in evil spirits. They
know that evil spirits do not break steps, spill garbage or pull down
fences. If property is damaged, they blame naughty boys and girls. Today,
Halloween is still a bad night for the police�
March 1st is a very important day for Welsh people. It�s St. David�s
Day. He�s the �patron� or national saint of Wales. On March 1st, the Welsh
celebrate St. Davids Day and wear daffodils in the buttonholes of their
coats or jackets.
On February 14th it�s Saint Valentine�s Day in Britain. It is not a
national holiday. Banks and offices do not close, but it is a happy little
festival in honour of St. Valentine. On this day, people send Valentine
cards to their husbands, wives, girlfriends and boyfriends. You can also
send a card to a person you do not know. But traditionally you must never
write your name on it. Some British newspapers have got a page for
Valentine�s Day messages on February 14th.
This lovely day is widely celebrated among people of all ages by the
exchanging of �valentines�.
Saint Valentine was a martyr but this feast goes back to pagan times
and the Roman feast of Lupercalia. The names of young unmarried girls were
put into a vase. The young men each picked a name, and discovered the
identity of their brides.
This custom came to Britain when the Romans invaded it. But the church
moved the festival to the nearest Christian saint�s day: this was Saint
Valentine�s Day.
Midsummer�s Day, June 24th, is the longest day of the year. On that
day you can see a very old custom at Stonehenge, in Wiltshire, England.
Stonehenge is on of Europe�s biggest stone circles. A lot of the stones are
ten or twelve metres high. It is also very old. The earliest part of
Stonehenge is nearly 5,000 years old. But what was Stonehenge? A holy
place? A market? Or was it a kind of calendar? Many people think that the
Druids used it for a calendar. The Druids were the priests in Britain 2,000
years ago. They used the sun and the stones at Stonehenge to know the start
of months and seasons. There are Druids in Britain today, too. And every
June 24th a lot of them go to Stonehenge. On that morning the sun shines on
one famous stone � the Heel stone. For the Druids this is a very important
moment in the year. But for a lot of British people it is just a strange
old custom.
Londoners celebrate carnivals. And one of them is Europe�s biggest
street carnival. A lot of people in the Notting Hill area of London come
from the West Indies � a group of islands in the Caribbean. And for two
days in August, Nutting Hill is the West Indies. There is West Indian food
and music in the streets. There is also a big parade and people dance day
and night.
April 1st is April Fool�s Day in Britain. This is a very old tradition
from the Middle Ages (between the fifth and fifteenth centuries). At that
time the servants were masters for one day of the year. They gave orders to
their masters, and their masters had to obey.
Now April Fool�s Day is different. It is a day for jokes and tricks.
One of the most interesting competitions is the university boat race.
Oxford and Cambridge are Britain�s two oldest universities. In the
nineteenth century, rowing was a popular sport at both of them. In 1829
they agreed to have a race. They raced on the river Thames and the Oxford
boat won. That started a tradition. Now, every Spring, the University Boat
Race goes from Putney to Mortlake on the Thames. That is 6,7 kilometres.
The Cambridge rowers wear light blue shirts and the Oxford rowers wear dark
blue. There are eight men in each boat. There is also a �cox�. The cox
controls the boat. Traditionally coxes are men, but Susan Brown became the
first woman cox in 1981. She was the cox for Oxford and they won.
An annual British tradition, which captures the imagination of the
whole nation is the London to Brighton Car Rally in which a fleet of
ancient cars indulges in a lighthearted race from the Capital to the Coast.
When the veteran cars set out on the London � Brighton run each
November, they are celebrating one of the great landmarks in the history of
motoring in Britain � the abolition of the rule that every �horseless
carriage� had to be preceded along the road by a pedestrian. This extremely
irksome restriction, imposed by the Locomotives on Highways Act, was
withdrawn in 1896, and on November of that year there was a rally of motor-
cars on the London - Brighton highway to celebrate the first day of freedom
� Emancipation Day, as it has known by motorists ever since.
Emancipation is still on the first Sunday of the month, but nowadays
there is an important condition of entry � every car taking part must be at
least 60 years old.
The Run is not a race. Entrants are limited to a maximum average speed
of 20 miles per hour. The great thing is not speed but quality of
performance, and the dedicated enthusiasts have a conversation all their
own.
The Highland Games � this sporting tradition is Scottish. In the
Highlands (the mountains of Scotland) families, or �clans�, started the
Games hundreds of years ago.
Some of the sports are the Games are international: the high jump and
the long jump, for example. But other sports happen only at the Highland
Games. One is tossing the caber. �Tossing� means throwing, and a �caber� is
a long, heavy piece of wood. In tossing the caber you lift the caber (it
can be five or six metres tall). Then you throw it in front of you.
At the Highland Games a lot of men wear kilts. These are traditional
Scottish skirts for men. But they are not all the same. Each clan has a
different �tartan�. That is the name for the pattern on the kilt. So at the
Highland Games there are traditional sports and traditional instrument �
the bagpipes. The bagpipes are very loud. They say Scots soldier played
them before a battle. The noise frightened the soldiers on other side.
The world�s most famous tennis tournament is Wimbledon. It started at
a small club in south London in the nineteenth century. Now a lot of the
nineteenth century traditions have changed. For example, the women players
don�t have to wear long skirts. And the men players do not have to wear
long trousers. But other traditions have not changed at Wimbledon. The
courts are still grass, and visitors still eat strawberries and cream. The
language of tennis has not changed either.
There are some British traditions and customs concerning their private
life. The British are considered to be the world�s greatest tea drinkers.
And so tea is Britain�s favourite drink. The English know how to make tea
and what it does for you. In England people say jokingly: �The test of good
tea is simple. If a spoon stands up in it, then it is strong enough; if the
spoon starts to wobble, it is a feeble makeshift�.
Every country has its drinking habits, some of which are general and
obvious, others most peculiar. Most countries also have a national drink.
In England the national is beer, and the pub �pub�, where people talk, eat,
drink, meet their friends and relax.
The word �pub� is short for �public house�. Pubs sell beer. (British
beer is always warm). An important custom in pubs is �buying a round�. In a
group, one person buys all the others a drink. This is a �round�. Then one
by one all the people buy rounds, too. If they are with friends, British
people sometimes lift their glasses before they drink and say: �Cheers�.
This means �Good luck�.
In the pubs in south-west England there is another traditional drink-
scrumpy.
Pub names often have a long tradition. Some come from the thirteenth
or fourteenth century. Every pub has a name and every pub has a sign above
its door. The sign shows a picture of the pub�s name.
And as you know, the British talk about the weather a lot. They talk
about the weather because it changes so often. Wind, rain, sun, cloud, snow
� they can all happen in a British winter � or a British summer.
Hundreds of years ago, soldiers began this custom. They shook hands to
show that they did not have a sword. Now, shaking hands is a custom in most
countries.
Frenchman shake hands every time they meet, and kiss each other on
both cheeks as a ceremonial salute, like the Russians, while Englishmen
shake hands only when they are introduced, or after a long absence.
Victorian England made nearly as many rules about hand shaking as the
Chinese did about bowing. A man could not offer his hand first a lady;
young ladies did not shake men�s hands at all unless they were old friends;
married ladies could offer their hands in a room, but not in public, where
they would bow slightly.
I have chosen the topic British customs traditions because I enjoy
learning the English language and wanted to know more about British ways of
life and traditions. Working on this topic I have to conclusion that
British people are very conservative. They are proud pf their traditions
and carefully keep them up. It was interesting to know that foreigners
coming to England are stuck at once by quite a number of customs and
peculiarities.
So I think of Britain as a place a lot of different types of people
who observe their traditions.

��:
1. �� . �Great Britain� ��. �� . �.-��, 1999�.;
2. �� .�. �� . �� . ��,
1999�.;
3. �� .�. �Reader for summer� ��. �� . �� 1985�.;
4. ��-�� .�. ��
��. �� 1999�.;
5. �� .�. �Britain in Brief� ��. �� . �� 1999�.;
6. ��-�� Christmas�, �� 69 ��. 113-119;
7. ��-�� Hello and goodbye�, �� 73 ��. 115-
117;
8. ��-�� , �� 77 ��.107-109;
9. �� Customs and traditions in Britain� ��. �Longman
Group�, ��, 1996�.;
10. �� .�. �British history� ��. �� . �.-�� 1999�.;
11. �� .�. �Customs, traditions and holidays in Britain� ��.
�� .�.-�� 1975�.;
12. �� .�. �� . �� .
�� 1997�.;
13. �� .�. �� Speak out� ��. �� . �� 1997�. ��.2-8.

History of Ukraine

mybb@mybb.ru (ArbAlet69) — Wed, 17 Dec 2008 18:10:06 +0300

History of Ukraine

From prehistoric times, migration and settlement patterns in the territories of present-day Ukraine varied fundamentally along the lines of geographic zones. A number of soil-tilling cultures succeeded one another (Trypillya Culture, Chernyakhivska Culture, Zarubynetska Culture and others). In the first millennium BC, the Scythian civilization spread over a greater part of the present-day Ukraine. During the 1st millennium BC the steppe hinterland was occupied successively by the Cimmerians, Scythians, and Sarmatians. The Scythians, both nomads and tillers of the soil, intrepid warriors and refined artists, remain, to a large extent, an enigma waiting to be explored. Beginning in the 7th-6th centuries BC, numerous Greek colonies were founded on the northern coast of the Black Sea, in the Crimea, and along the Sea of Azov; these Hellenic outposts later came under the hegemony of the Roman Empire. The early Ukrainians practiced agriculture and animal husbandry, engaged in such domestic industries as cloth making and ceramics, and built fortified settlements, many of which later developed into important commercial and political canters. Among such early settlements was Kyiv on the high right bank of the Dnipro River.

The emergence of Ukraine as a powerful state is closely connected with the rise of Kyiv, its capital. We know little of the early stages of Kyiv�s development, but there is enough evidence to suggest that Kyiv emerged no later than AD 5th century, and many historians argue it happened much earlier. In the 9th century Kyiv becomes the capital of a state that stretched from the Baltic Sea in the north, from the Black Sea in the south, from the Carpathian Mountains in the west to the Volga River in the east. This state, usually referred to as �Kyivan-Rus-Ukraine,� incorporated many eastern Slavic tribes. AD 988 saw the adoption of Christianity by this state which became a Christian bulwark against the incursions of the heathen nomads of the steppes. Kyivan-Rus-Ukraine, which flourished in the 10th � 12th centuries, was treated with respect by Byzantine and western European powers. The east European Slavic cultures of later ages of sprang up from the culture of Kyivan-Rus-Ukraine.

The feuds among princes and local rulers of the state gradually undermined its power and continuous fighting for the possession of Kyiv proved to be disastrous: when the Mongol-Tartar hordes invaded the country in the 13th century they did not meet a unified opposition. Kyiv, after a siege, fell in 1240 and was practically razed to the ground. But the cultural traditions were picked up by the states that emerged later in the lands of what used to be Kyivan-Rus-Ukraine. The Halytsko-Volynska State with King Danylo at its head managed to withstand the pressure of the Mongols from the east and of the crusaders from the west. The continuity of culture was not disrupted. Meanwhile, Kyiv and other lands of the former Kyivan-Rus-Ukraine came under the dominance of the Grand Principality of Lithuania, but preserved their own cultural identity. In the early 15th century, Kyiv was granted the status of a free city under the Magdeburg Law. Powerful neighbors of Ukraine - Rzeczpospolita (Poland), Muscovy and the Ottoman Empire never stopped their attempts to grab great chunks of the Ukrainian territory, which attracted them by its fertility and natural resources.

The Zaporizhian Sich, a free republic of the Ukrainian Cossacks that was established at the end of the 16th century, later, in the 17th century, turned out to be a decisive political power in Ukraine�s struggle for independence. The Zaporizhian Cossacks came out in support of all the Ukrainians who lived under foreign domination and sought freedom. They were also successors and continuations of the cultural traditions. After a period of cruel wars, Ukraine gained independence in the middle of the 17th century, with a Hetman as an elected ruler and military leader of the state. In 1654 Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky was forced by the pressure of political circumstances to sign a treaty, which put Ukraine under Russian tzar�s protection. For another hundred years though, Ukraine retained much of its autonomy, including its own laws and army. The union of the freedom-loving Ukraine and of the suppressive Moscow Empire was not a happy one from the outset. In the early 17th century Hetman Ivan Mazepa made an attempt to extricate Ukraine from much too tight an embrace of the Russian State and joined Sweden in its struggle against Russia. The attempt failed after the combined Swedish and Ukrainian forces were defeated in the Battle of Poltava.

The Russian pressure on Ukraine was stepped up, and by brutal force the Russian tzars did away with Ukraine�s autonomy and whatever liberties there might have been left. The free peasants were turned into serfs and self-government in any form was abolished. By the end at the 18th century Ukraine was no more then just another province of the Russian Empire, with the western Ukrainian lands finding themselves under the dominance of the Empire of Austria and Hungary. The 19th century saw a gradual re-establishment of the Ukrainian national identity and after the World War I, an opportunity presented itself to Ukraine to go once again independent.

In the wake of the collapse of the Russian Empire and of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Ukraine proclaimed its Independence of January 22, 1918, with Mykhaylo Hrushevsky, a prominent political figure and historian, becoming its first president. The Civil War of 1917-1920 that raged across the former Russian Empire was the fiercest in Ukraine. It became a scene of battles of many forces fighting for the supremacy of Ukraine: national liberation forces, Bolshevik armies, White armies commanded by the Russian generals, anarchists, armed forces of Germany, Austria, Hungary, Britain, France, Romania, Greece, and numerous bandit groups into the bargain. The Ukrainian People�s Republic succumbed under enormous pressure and was incorporated into the Soviet Union in 1922.

The thirties and forties turned out to be even more dramatic and tragic to Ukraine than anything it had lived through before. The Soviet totalitarian regime wrought havoc in Ukraine with purges, extermination of Ukrainian wealthy peasants and intellectuals, artificially induced famines (the famine of 1932-1933 took a terrible toll of several million lives). Ukrainian culture suffered enormous losses both in terms of intellectuals shot or dispatched to concentration camps, and of destruction of historical and architectural monuments, books, etc.

The Second World War brought new tragedies and new suffering, with three million Ukrainians killed in action at the battlefronts and five more million dying in the Nazi-occupied territories. The material losses of Ukraine in the war are estimated to have been almost a thousand billion dollars. In the postwar years, Ukraine developed its economy rather fast but lack of democracy continued to stifle Ukrainian national culture.

On April 26, 1986, a reactor at the Chornobyl Nuclear Power Plant experienced a meltdown of its core and exploded. This disaster affected the lives of millions of people in Ukraine.

In the mid-eighties, there began in Ukraine and upsurge of the movement for national independence. This time, millions of Ukrainians, rather then individual dissidents and nationalists joined the movement. Newly formed half-clandestine democratic organization and a widening search for national identity destabilized the communist regime. On July 16, 1990, the Verkhovna Rada, Ukrainian parliament, adopted The Act of State Sovereignty, which was the first major step toward true independence.

After a coup to reestablish the tight Soviet control failed in Moscow in August of 1991, the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine adopted the Declaration of Independence on August 24, 1991. On December 1 of the same year, the all-Ukrainian Referendum confirmed the desire of the part of the majority of Ukrainians to live in an independent state. Ukraine inherited form the defunct Empire an enormous rocket and nuclear arms potential which made it the third mightiest nuclear power in the world. Ukrainian parliament soon after Ukraine had become independent, made an unprecedented move - it has been decided to get rid of all the nuclear weapons. In was the first time ever a nuclear power scrapped its nuclear weapons.

The first few years of independence turned out to be extremely difficult for Ukraine (in fact, they were difficult for all the former Soviet states): the economy in shambles; many industrial enterprises too big to be renovated; enormous military-industrial complex; obsolete technologies; totally defective agricultural system; depleted fertilities of the soil; badly polluted environment; ecological situation very much aggravated by the consequences of the Chornobyl disaster; ruined social sphere; no money for properly financed education, science and culture; runaway inflation (which turned all Ukrainians into �millionaires� who could hardly make ends meet). A list of woes is a long one indeed.

Recent years have brought about a change for the better. The national currency � hryvnya � was introduced more than four years ago and ever since in has remained more or less stable. For the first time since the collapse of the Soviet Union the economic decline slowed down and finally stopped and in many industries a definite increase of production has been observed.

Cultural life is on the upswing. Small and middle-sized businesses are more active than ever before. Ukrainian foreign policy has been successful in making Ukraine much better known on the arena of international politics. There is enough confidence generated now to look into the future with hope. The new century � and the new millennium � should become a new era in Ukraine�s development.

London_1_History_Foundation

mybb@mybb.ru (ArbAlet69) — Wed, 17 Dec 2008 18:09:25 +0300

FOUNDATION
Exactly when the first settlers moved to what is now call London is unknown, but it seems likely that it lies far back in pre Christian times. It is also unclear which of all the villages in the modern London area is the oldest, or even how many there where. What is known is that bronze working had developed in the area and that Heathrow was a religious centre of considerable importance with a wooden temple in the classic style.
As to why a city grew in this location it is probably due to the river Thames. If you look at the geography of Britain it can be clearly seen that the Thames forms a massive barrier between the south east and the rest of the country. The lower reaches of the river are tidal, they reached what is nowadays London Bridge or there about. It also seems that in this area the river was shallow. Therefore this was the point closest to the sea at where it was reasonably safe and easy to cross the river. It therefore became a natural focus for all routes from the Southeast of England and the Continent to and from the north.
Close by the ford on the north side there was an ideal location for a defensible hamlet. A small hill with the Fleet and Walbrook rivers to the east and west.
ROMAN PERIOD
When the Roman invaded Britain in 43 AD they landed in Kent, the most direct route to the northern parts of the country were of course via London. Fairly early on in the campaign they built the first bridge over the river and established a settlement on nearby Cornhill. Recently the remains of a foundation pier of this first bridge have been found very close to the current London Bridge, the line of the road to the bridge followed what is now Fish Street Hill. The settlement was militarily unimportant, it's main function was that of a supply depot and trading centre.
In 61 AD Boudicca attacked the town and destroyed it, killing 70,000 Londoners. The city was rebuild and flourished, by the end of the 1st century it was the most important town in the country. In 125 there was a fire which again destroyed much of the city.
London quickly become the centre for commerce, it was the largest port, and a major junction for many roads. In fact many of the current city's most famous roads date from this time. Among these are Fleet Street and The Strand which lead to Kensington and Hammersmith. Holborn, Oxford Street and the Bayswater Road leads to the Silchester Road, the Edgware Road, Bishopsgate, Whitechapel High Street and many others. In 200 the first wall was built around the city, it was about 3.5 kilometres long, 7 meters high and 3 meters wide. The stone was quarried in the Medway area, and transported by barge, the remains of one was found near Blackfriars bridge.
By 314 Christianity had a foothold in the city, it is recorded that the Bishop of London attended the Council of Arles, which was called by Constantine.
In 410 the Romans left, but the city survived. The next reference to London can be found in 604 in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. Bede described it as "a mart of many people".
MEDIEVAL TIMES
A little further up river in about 1050 Edward the Confessor started building a residence and church on Thornney Island. The area became knows as Westminster. In this period London was not 1 city but 2, the City and Westminster. One ruled by commerce and the other the Monarch. The revelry between the two was intense. One of the manifestations of this feud was the Tower, it was built by William the Conqueror in 1078 to remind the City who the boss was. Between the two cities there were a number of villages, the site of one is where St Clement Danes stands, and another at Charing Cross.
Most of the buildings were one storey, timber frame, with wattle and daub walls and thatched roofs. Windows had no glass, just shutters. Only the rich had stone houses, with surrounding grounds. By the 14th century the streets were cobbled, the houses 3 to 4 story brightly painted timer frames structures. The higher stories overhung the street, while the ground floor was the work shop and store.
The city was and still is organised into 25 ward, the last Farringdon Without was added in 1394. Each ward had an elected alderman, who's main duty was to keep the peace. In 1191 the Commune was formed. It was made up of alderman who then elected a mayor. This body was known as the Corporation. In 1193 Henry Fitzailwin was made the first mayor. The Corporation was responsible for taxation.
Another vital element of life was a recognised trade. The lack of one could have dire consequences, including exclusion from citizenship, with it's associated rights to vote or trade without restriction. Originally only by learning and practicing a trade could you become a member of a guild and be able to trade freely. All other were viewed as rivals, if they came from England they were knows as "foreign" while those from abroad were "aliens". Trading restriction continued until the 19th century.
By the 15th century it was possible to buy, inherit or be granted membership of a guild. Soon the guilds had very little to do with the professions they supposedly represented. There are 2 types of guilds, the merchant such as the goldsmiths and the mercers, and the handicraft such as the potters and weavers. The more powerful bought themselves royal charters and become livery companies and the key members liveryman. In 1475 the electoral systems was changed and the liveryman on behalf of the citizens, selected the sheriffs. They also proposed 2 alderman, one of whom the Court of Alderman would appoint the mayor. At no time were ever more than a quarter of the population members of a guild.
The other major influence was the church, in the City alone there were 126 churches not counting religious houses.
The city was surrounded by villages. On the south of the river was Southwark, a place of entertainment and refuge of criminals, to the west was the village of Charing and further on Westminster. To the north and east there are farms and hamlets.
There is no actual fixed date for when London become the capitol. In the early period the court always follow the King, but in 1338 the exchequer move permanently to Westminster, followed by the Chancery, and London became the de facto capitol.
Tudor and Stuart Times
In 1600 the population was 200,000. The city was surrounded by farm land which provided the food that the city needed. Most of this land belonged to the church.
The key feature in period was overcrowding. The walled city was full, and suffering the consequences. The streets acted as sewers, the water supply was unsafe, disease was rife, traffic congestion was probably even worse than today, smog was frequent, and air pollution extreme. Simply put the city stank. Efforts were undertaken to improve thinks, such as building a new river to bring in clean water from the area north of London, and piping it to those who would pay, but on the whole the measures were too little and too late.
The dissolution of the monasteries in 1536 saved the city, suddenly lots of land became available. The city guilds opposed any expansion outside the walls, as they would loose control over the traders and craftsmen outside of their area. In 1580 they managed to get the King to issue a proclamation banning new building within 3 miles of the City gates, but it was never really enforced, the Crown was happy to accept the revenue from the imposed fines.
As a result the wealthy started to move out to the west, building large mansions and houses. The first were in Lincoln's Inn Field, then Covent Garden, Leicester fields, Piccadilly. Meanwhile the Crown built in Whitehall and Greenwich. The most famous architect from this period is Inigo Jones, who is responsible for the Banqueting house and the Queens House. This rapid growth was halted by the civil war and commonwealth.
After the restoration the City suffered a series of major disasters, firstly in 1665 plague and the in 1666 the fire. The population was decimated and most of the city destroyed. This marked the end of the old city and the beginning of the new, the one we know today. The new city was built in such a way as to be far more hygienic and be virtually plague free. The most renowned architect from this period is Wren. He is best known for the 51 churches he rebuilt, 39 of which still survive. In the old city only few of the churches had spires, Wren changed this and gave London it's now characteristic skyline.
The 18 and 19 century
This period marked the end of the walled city. The city continues to grow, in a reasonably organised manor to the west, and chaotically to the east. The rich moved ever further west and immigrants moved into the east and those in between to the newly growing suburbs further out from the centre. The large estates in what we now know as the west end, were replaced with elegant squares, along with areas such as Mayfair and Belgravia. While to the east one wave of immigrants after the other moved in and later moved on to the suburbs, a pattern that continues to this day
As the city grew the pollution in the centre declined, house being replaced by places of work. While the marginal areas deteriorated into the worst possible kind of slums. This lead to more people moving out of the centre to the new suburbs. This trend was accelerate with the advent of the railways. London began to swallow up all the surrounding areas.
Meanwhile the old problems of pollution and it's related health problems continued, Cholera, Thyroid etc outbreaks were regular events. The Thames was an open sewer, the stench became so bad that even the work of Parliament were effected. The city began to clean up it's act and gradually took on the form as we know it today.
Parallel to this move of people out of the city, commerce and industry moved in. During this period the docks grew, taking over vast tracts of land. The port grew to be the biggest in the world. The wharfs and warehouse extending over a mile away from the river on both sides, from Tower Bridge for many miles downstream. Hand in hand with the port the financial institutions of the City also grew and became the worlds most important financial centre.
The 20 Century
At the start of century London was the most influential centre in the world, the heart of the British Empire, ,financial centre of the world, capitol of the first industrialised nation. It's wealth is unparallel, and lots of is spent on building, parks and the arts.
The defining event of the period is the Second World War and it's associated blitz. By the end of the war 30,000 Londoner civilians had been killed, that is almost half of the total number of civilians killed in the UK. Only 1 in 10 building were undamaged, in the City one-third of the building no longer existed. More than 12,000 tons of high explosives had been dropped, (the most for any other city was 2,000).
London was rebuilt, and it continued to grew. It's political importance declined, but it's cultural influence grew, in particular for the younger, with the swinging sixties.
London is a unique city with it's combination of history, industry, and culture. Its is well worth a visit.

MARRIAGE

mybb@mybb.ru (ArbAlet69) — Wed, 17 Dec 2008 18:08:50 +0300

MARRIAGE
(From http://wiki.tatet.com/Marriage.html)
Marriage is a relationship that usually forms the nucleus of a family and is generally considered to be the union of two people, usually (but not always), a man and a woman. Since the latter decades of the 20th century, alternative definitions have come to the fore.
In the East, some have described marriage as a "socially sanctioned union", implying that any sort of relationship can be called marriage if a given society approves of it. Some others regard this description as part of a campaign of redefining the very concept of marriage. Typically, these are advocates who maintain that marriage can and must be a relationship of one man and one woman. Other advocates maintain that the aspect of social sanction has always been the major determining factor, and that redefinition is accordingly perfectly legitimate (as well as long overdue).
Marriage is found in all societies, and typically a married couple form a household, which is often subsequently extended biologically, through children.
There is wide variation in the precise form that marriage takes. Two of the most hotly-debate variants are discussed below: same-sex marriage and polygamy.
Types of marriage
The type and functions of marriage vary from culture to culture. In the United States, Europe, and China in the early 21st century, legally sanctioned marriages are monogamous and divorce is relatively simple and socially sanctioned. In the West, the prevailing view toward marriage is that it is based on emotional attachment between the partners and entered into voluntarily.
In the Islamic world, marriage is sanctioned between a man and up to four women. In Imperial China, formal marriage was sanctioned only between a man and a woman, although a man could take several concubines and the children from the union were considered legitimate.
In most societies, marriage was polygynic, where a man could have multiple wives, but even there, the vast majority of men had only one. In such societies, multiple wives is generally considered a sign of wealth and power. The status of multiple wives varied from one society to another. In Islamic societies, the different wives were considered equal while in Imperial China, one woman was considered the primary wife while the other women were considered concubines. Among the upper classes, the primary wife was an arranged marriage with an elaborate formal ceremony while the concubines were taken on later with minimal ceremony.
There were also many societies that were monogamous, where a person could be married to only one person at once, and very few polyandrous, where a woman could have multiple husbands. Societies which permit group marriage are extremely rare, but have existed in utopian societies such as the Oneida Community.
Because of recent expansion of monogamous Europeans, monogamy is much more popular than it was ever before. However, in 21st century Western cultures, while bigamy and sexual relations outside marriage is generally socially or legally frowned-upon, divorce and remarriage has been relatively easy to undertake. This has lead to a practice which some have called serial monogamy. In particular, some have argued that the pattern of the rich divorcing their first wives and then taking on a trophy wife is similar to patterns of polygamy in other societies.
Legally sanctioned marriages are generally conducted between heterosexual couples, although there are countries that recognize same-sex marriage.
Recognition
Married couples usually seek social sanction of their society, and most societies require official approval of a religious or civil body. Sociologists thus distinguish between a marriage ceremony conducted under the auspices of a religion and a state-sanctioned civil marriage.
In many jurisdictions the civil marriage ceremony may take place during the religious marriage ceremony, although they are two distinct entities. In most American states the marriage may be officiated by an minister, priest or religious authority, and in such a case the religious authority acts simultaneously as a religious authority and an agent of the state. In some countries such as France and Russia it is necessary to be married by the state before having a religious ceremony. Some states allow civil marriages which are not allowed by many religions, such as same-sex marriages or civil unions, and marriage may also be created by the operation of the law alone as in common-law marriage, which is a judicial recognition that two people living as domestic partners are entitled to the effects of marriage. Conversely, there are examples of people who have a religious ceremony which is not recognized civilly. Examples include widows who stand to lose a pension if they remarry and so undergo a marriage in the eyes of god, gay or lesbian couples, some breakaway sects of Mormonism which recognize polygamy, Islamic men who wish to engage in polygamy that is condoned in their particular sect of Islam and immigrants who are preparing to travel to more developed countries but who do not wish to alert to the immigration authorities that they are married either to a spouse they are leaving behind or because of the complexity of immigration laws that may make it difficult for their spouse to visit them on a tourist visa.

Rights and obligations
Typically, it is the institution through which people join together their lives in emotional and economic ways through forming a household. It often confers rights and obligations with respect to raising children, holding property, sexual behaviour, kinship ties, tribal membership, relationship to society, inheritance, emotional intimacy, and love.
Marriage sometimes: establishes the legal father of a woman's child; establishes the legal mother of a man's child; gives the husband or his family control over the wife's sexual services, labor, and/or property; gives the wife or her family control over the husband's sexual services, labor, and/or property; establishes a joint fund of property for the benefit of children; establishes a relationship between the families of the husband and wife. No society does all of these; no one of these is universal (see Edmund Leach's article in "Marriage, Family, and Residence," edited by Paul Bohannan and John Middleton).
Marriage has traditionally been a prerequisite for starting a family, which usually serves as the building block of a community and society. Thus, marriage not only serves the interests of the two individuals, but also the interests of their children and the society of which they are a part.
In the Jewish, Muslim or Christian world, marriage is traditionally a prerequisite for sexual intercourse: unmarried people are not supposed to have sex, which is then called fornication and is socially discouraged or even criminalized. Sex with another person than one's spouse, called adultery, is even less acceptable and has also often been criminalized, especially in the case of a woman. Finally, in some cultures, it is expected that the wife should submit sexually to the husband: there can exist no spousal rape.
Marriage restrictions
Societies have always placed restrictions on marriage to relatives, though the degree of prohibited relationship varies widely. In almost all societies marriage between brothers and sisters is forbidden, with Egyptian royalty being the rare exception. In many societies marriage between some first-cousins is preferred, while at the other extreme, the mediaeval Catholic church prohibited marriage between distant cousins. The present day Catholic Church still maintains a standard of required distance (in both consanguinity and affinity) for marriage. Many societies have also adopted other restrictions on who one can marry, such as prohibitions on marrying persons with the same surname, or persons with the same sacred animal.
Anthropologists refer to these sort of restrictions as exogamy. One exception to this pattern is in ancient Egypt, where marriage between brothers and sisters was permitted in the royal family; this privilege was denied commoners and may have served to concentrate wealth and power in one family (See also incest). The consequence of the incest-taboo is exogamy, the requirement to marry someone from another group. Anthropologists have thus pointed out that the incest-taboo may serve to promote social solidarity.
Societies have also at times required marriage from within a certain group. Anthropologists refer to these restrictions as endogamy. An example of such a restrictions would be a requirement to marry someone from the same tribe. Racist laws adopted by some societies in the past to prohibit marriage of peoples of different races, or miscegenation, could also be considered examples of endogamy.
Termination
Many societies provide for the termination of marriage through divorce. Marriages can also be annulled, which is a legal proceeding that establishes that a marriage was never valid from the beginning.
Weddings
The ceremony in which a marriage is enacted and announced to the community is called a wedding. A wedding in which a couple marry in the' eyes of the law' is called a civil marriage. Religions also facilitate weddings, in the 'eyes of God.' In many European and some Latin American countries, where someone chooses a religious ceremony, they must also hold that ceremony separate from the civil ceremony. In some countries, notably the United States, the United Kingdom, the Republic of Ireland and Spain both ceremonies can be held together; the officiant at the religious and community ceremony also serves as an agent of the state to enact the civil marriage. That does not mean that the state is recognising religious marriages; the 'civil' ceremony takes place as part but separate from, the religious ceremony. Often this simply involves signing a register during the religious ceremony. If for whatever reason, that civil element of the full ceremony is left out, in the eyes of the law no marriage took place, irrespective of the holding of the religious ceremony.
The way in which a marriage is enacted has changed over time, as has the institution of marriage itself. In Europe during the Middle Ages, marriage was enacted by the couple promising verbally to each other that they would be married to each other. This promise was known as the verbum. At first, the Catholic Church did not conduct or recognise marriages, but priests did step in to witness the verbum and so be able to help resolve disputes about whether the couple in fact married themselves. At the Council of Trent, the Church declared marriage a sacrament. As part of the Reformation, the role of recording marriages and setting the rules for marriage passed to the state. By the 1600s many of the Protestant European countries had heavy state involvement in marriage.

Marriage and religion
In virtually all religions marriage is a long-term union between two people and is established with ceremonies and rituals. The two people are most commonly a man and a woman, though many societies have permitted polygamous marriages, and same-sex marriage is now acknowledged in some places.
Many religions have extensive teachings regarding marriage. Most Christian churches give some form of blessing to a marriage; the wedding ceremony typically includes some sort of pledge by the community to support the couple's relationship. In the Catholic Church, marriage became one of the seven sacraments at the Council of Trent. In the Eastern Orthodox church, it is one of the Mysteries, and is seen as an ordination and a martyrdom. In marriage, Christians see a picture of the relationship between Jesus Christ and His Church. In Judaism, marriage is so important that remaining unmarried is deemed unnatural. Islam also recommends marriage highly; among other things, it helps in the pursuit of spiritual perfection. Hinduism sees marriage as a sacred duty that entails both religious and social obligations. By contrast, Buddhism does not encourage or discourage marriage, although it does teach how one might live a happily married life.
It is also worth noting that different religions have different beliefs as regards the breakup of marriage. For example, the Roman Catholic Church believes it is morally wrong to divorce, and divorcees cannot remarry in a church marriage, though they can do so in the eyes of the law. In the area of nullity, religions and the state often apply different rules, meaning that a couple, for example, could have their marriage annulled by the Catholic Church but still be married in the eyes of the law, because the state disagrees with the church over whether an annulment could be granted in a particular case. This produces the phenomenon of Catholics getting church annulments simultaneously with state divorces, allowing the ex-partners to marry other people in the eyes of both the church and the state.
Marriage and economics
When two people marry they may have the choice between keeping their property separate or combining their property. In the latter case, when the marriage ends by divorce each owns half; if one partner dies the surviving partner owns half and for the other half inheritance rules apply.
The respective maintenance obligations, during and eventually after a marriage, are regulated in most jurisdictions; see alimony.
Criticisms of marriage
Many commentators have argued that marriage has a significant dark side, sometimes condemning individual local practices and sometimes even the entire institution of marriage. A good many of these are feminist critiques, which claim that in many cultures marriage is particularly disadvantageous to women.
In many areas of the world, when a woman was in her early teens her father arranged a marriage for her in return for a brideprice, sometimes to a man twice her age who was a stranger to her. Her older husband then became her guardian and she could be cut off almost completely from her family. The woman had little or no say in the marriage negotiations, which might even have occurred without her knowledge.
Some traditions allowed a woman who failed to bear a son to be given back to her father. This reflected the importance of bearing children and extending the family to succeeding generations.
Often both parties are expected to be virgins before their marriage, but in many cultures women were more strictly held to this standard. One old tradition in Europe, which survived into the twentieth century in rural Greece, was for this to be proven by hanging the bloody bed sheet from the wedding night from the side of the house. Similarly, sexual fidelity is very often expected in marriage, but sometimes the expectations and penalties for women were harsher than those for men.
In some traditions marriage could be a traumatic, unpleasant turn of events for a girl. "The Lot of Women" written in Athens in the mid 5th century BC laments this situation:
Young women, in my opinion, have the sweetest existence known to mortals in their father's homes, for their innocence always keeps children safe and happy. But when we reach puberty and can understand, we are thrust out and sold away from our ancestral gods and from our parents. Some go to strange men's homes, others to foreigner's, some to joyless houses, some to hostile. And all this once the first night has yoked us to our husband we are forced to praise and say that all is well.
On the other hand, marriage has often served to assure the woman of her husband's continued support and enabled her to focus more attention on the raising of her children. This security has typically been greater when and where divorce was more difficult to obtain.
Some older wedding traditions still survive in some form in today's ceremonies. Women may still be symbolically "given away" by their fathers. Some brides still vow to "love and obey" their husbands and some bridegrooms vow to "care for" their wives. A groom might remove his bride's garter, a symbol of her virginity, as a public representation of his claim on her sexuality. Brides toss their bouquets towards a group of single women, who compete to catch the bouquet; the woman who catches the bouquet is believed to have the good fortune to be the next woman to get married. These traditions, though often attacked by critics and scholars, nevertheless remain a treasured part of many ceremonies, cherished by both bride and groom.

Education in Ukraine

mybb@mybb.ru (ArbAlet69) — Wed, 17 Dec 2008 18:08:15 +0300

Education in Ukraine
System of education in Ukraine

The system of education provides good quality and is well developed. One of the most important tasks for central and local authorities is to give equal possibilities in getting top quality education for all citizens of Ukraine.

When independence was declared, education acquires a distinctly national character and became more adapted to the new approved for primary and secondary schools, while new private educational institutes and schools were established.
In the area of education and upbringing are involved 7% of Ukrainian professionals who teach 11 mln students (22% of the population).
There are 18400 institutions for pre-school preparation. According to the Constitution secondary takes the central part in the system and is free and quite accessible. 7 mln students attend 21900 schools. Private sector in secondary education is insignificant. Totally, there are 200 private schools (1% of all the amount of students).
Transition of secondary school from 10 (11) to 12 level system, according to European standards, is taking place now. Moreover, there is no difference in content of Ukrainian (post-soviet) secondary education from standards of secondary school of other European countries.
You can take vocation in 1003 technical institutions (utchilische) on the base of lower secondary education and upper secondary education.
In Ukrainian system of education College of Further Education (tekhnikum) refers to the lower part of higher education.
Over one thousand occupational schools offer over 800 professional specializations. Students may choose among 313 (220 state and 93 private) universities, academies, and institutes as well as 658 (589 state and 69 private) educational institutions with first or second degree of accreditation. 500 educational institutions can offer supplementary education and the improvement of qualifications. Each year about 50 000 students, graduates, teachers, and professionals go to upgrade their knowledge and professional skills abroad. In return, studying in Ukraine becomes more attractive for foreigners and especially for young people from the Ukrainian Diaspora. During the years of independence, more than 60 international agreements have been signed dealing with development of cooperation in the field of education. In order to stimulate the application of general European educational standards, cooperation has gained depth with the Council of Europe, UNESCO, and other international organizations that work under the TEMPUS program.

Higher education in Ukraine

Higher education in Ukraine has centuries-old history, national traditions and high prestige in the world. Higher school in Ukraine has got developed training, scientific and social infrastructure and is ready to give an opportunity to every citizen of Ukraine or citizen of any other country to obtain education of different levels, to study at proficiency improvement or advanced courses, to study at post-graduate courses or to write doctorate dissertation, to take part in fundamental and applied researches.
Every year almost 200 thousand Ukrainians and citizens of other countries become students of higher educational institutions in Ukraine.
The system of higher education in Ukraine has flexible structure, corresponds to modern trends and tendencies to those in advanced countries recognized by UNESCO, UN Organization and many other international organization.
Since 1992 the whole system of Ukrainian post-secondary education has been regarded as "Higher Education".
According to the "Law on Education" of Ukraine higher education of Ukraine has several categories of higher educational institutions, which correspond, as a rule, to four levels of accreditation:
Level I - Vocational Training Schools;
Level II - Technical Secondary Schools and Colleges;
Level III - Universities, Academies, Institutes.
The levels of accreditation represent the hierarchy of degrees according to the qualification of graduates. There are: Junior Specialist, Bachelor, Specialist and Master. The higher educational institutions of III-IV levels of accreditation in Ukraine includes 185 state ones: 65 classical, technical, medical, agrarian and other universities, 36 academies and more than 80 institutes. About 40% of school-leavers have the opportunity to get higher education.
Higher educational institutions possess powerful scientific and teaching potential. Scientific and teaching staff accounts about 80, 000 persons; among them - 4, 500 doctors of science, 33, 000 candidates of science, more than 5,000 professors and around 27, 000 assistant professors.
Graduates of higher educational institutions who have outstanding inclinations for scientific-research work have an opportunity to continue their studies at the post-graduate and doctorate course.
The vast network of post-graduate courses on different majors satisfies the needs in highly qualified specialists for different branches of industry, economics, science, culture and education. Training is carried out for 20 branches of science and 366 majors and it includes all the branches of training of the specialists of high qualification. There are 16,000 post-graduate students and around 1, 000 persons working for a doctor's degree. Training on majors, which determine the reform processes in the country (economics, law, social and political studies) is expanded now.
New Ukrainian educational laws, state policies give certain autonomy to the higher educational institutions in their activities classical academic liberties in the self-government.

Structure of the State Higher education in Ukraine

The structure of State higher education in Ukraine is:
UNIVERSITIES (classical, technical & technological, economic, medical, agrarian, pedagogical, P.T. & sports, military, internal affairs);
ACADEMIES (law, technical & technological, economic, medical, agrarian, culture & arts, military, internal affairs
INSTITUTES (technical & technological, economic, medical, agrarian, pedagogical, law, culture & arts, P.T.& sports, military, internal affaires).

Terms of entrance and study of foreign at Ukraine's Higher education institutions

According to the "Law on Education" of Ukraine all the applicants who would like to enter higher educational institutions have equal rights irrespective of the sex, race, nationality, social and property status occupation, world outlook, religion and other circumstance.
Education of the foreign students in Ukraine is carried out according to the Law of Ukraine "On the Legal Status of Foreigners", and resolutions of the Government of Ukraine on training of the foreign citizens in Ukraine.
The academic year in the higher educational institutions in Ukraine starts on the 1st of September and is divided into two semesters, from September to the end of January and from February to the end of June. A semester lasts 17-18 weeks, followed by a 3 weeks examination period.
Foreign citizens who would like to enter the higher educational institution in Ukraine have to apply to Ukrainian International Center "Osvita" of the Ministry of Education of Ukraine or directly to the higher educational institution.
Entrance Procedure. You have to send the following to the University:
- an application form;
- the copy of the document about secondary education signed by a notary;
- the copy of birth certificate signed by a notary;
- medical certificate that states you have no health problem and infectious disease;
- 8 documental photos.
If there are no problems with the documents, you will get an official proposal, 2 copies of contract and the invoice for study course and other payments. After that you have to send a letter of confirmation of your coming to take a course, one copy of the contract, a copy of the bank document that confirms your payment. The university sends the official invitation to the applicant.
Medical insurance. The procedure of medical insurance of international students is a usual practice in Ukraine. Medical insurance can be paid together with study payment or at the airport in Ukraine. There are other ways of payment as well.
Visa. As soon as you get the invitation you have to address the Embassy of Ukraine in your country. There you can find out the information about the list of documents needed to get a student visa. To get through the passport control you have to show the passport with visa, the copy of the official invitation, medical insurance policy. On coming to the place of study, international students have to be registered in the local authorities. As a rule, the international department of the university does this procedure.
Applicants - citizens of Ukraine pass entrance examinations (usually in July), which are organized by the higher educational institutions and regulated by the Ministry of Education of Ukraine. The programs of entrance examinations correspond to the programs of secondary schools. The examinations at the state higher educational institutions are open competitions and admission of the applicants for the places available for "state study" without tuition fee is carried out according to the results of the competitions.
Educational institutions either state or private have the right to admit the applicants for fee-paying education according to the results of the interviews or examinations after preparatory departments.
International students start their studying with foundation year. It includes a course of Ukrainian (Russian) language and some of the comprehensive subjects according to the future profession.
Further education is continuing together with Ukrainian students.
Foreign as well as Ukrainian students have the opportunity to use all available leisure, welfare and sports facilities of the institutions.
Tuition, residence and other facilities fees are fixed by corresponding agreement. As compared with the Western countries education and residence fees in Ukraine are not so high and quite acceptable for all strata of population.
Most of the states Universities provide free medical service in student's hospitals. Student can also go to state and private hospitals, where medical service is to be paid. Service of the ambulance is free.

Edgar Allan Poe

mybb@mybb.ru (ArbAlet69) — Wed, 17 Dec 2008 18:07:46 +0300

Edgar Allan Poe (1809�1849)

The brilliance of Poe (born in the beginning of the 19th century) is obvious. A notable American Romantic poet, he was also a master of the prose tale. A gifted man, Poe thought about the proper function of literature with the result that he became the first great American literary critic.

He developed a theory of poetry which was a disagreement with what most poets of the mid-nineteenth century believed. According to Poe, only a short poem could sustain the necessary level of emotion in the reader. The poems are melodious and dramatic in their effects.

Both in his poetry and his short stories he wrote about dying ladies, about sickness, abnormal rather than normal love (� all traditional topic of Romanticism).

Edgar Allan Poe is considered (to be) one of the three America�s first great short story writers (the other two are Nathaniel Hawthorne and Washington Irving). His definition of the genre (= literary form) states that everything in a story (or tale)- every incident, combination of events, every word � must aid the author in achieving a preconceived emotional effects. For Poe the advantage of the short prose narrative over the novel is that it maintains the unity of the reader�s interest from the beginning to the end. Unlike the novel, which cannot be read at one sitting, a short story is less subject to the influence of the outside world.

Poe felt (=believed) that the writer should conceive his stories with deliberate care in order to achieve �a single unique or single effect�, beginning with the initial (=first) sentence of the story.

Poe published over seventy short stories in his short life (he lived only forty years / he died at the age of 40). His best short stories deal with either logical reasoning as in his detective or mystery) stories or terror, as in case of �The Cask of Amontilliado.� Poe�s tales of terror are, perhaps, more widely known to the general reader than his detective stories.

Poe�s short, narrative prose style (as found in the two categories characteristic of his fiction � the already mentioned mystery and terror) has widely influenced the form and purpose of the short story, not only in the United States, but also around the world.

Probably, the story best illustrating Poe�s terror series is �The Cask of Amontilliado�. Every word here contributes toward the single effect of terror which the story conveys.

Besides the Romantic writing that he did so effectively, Poe also pioneered in the development of the detective story. He prided himself on his ability to reason, and several of his best short stories are justly noted for their deductive skill. The strange world depicted in many of Poe�s writings was the product of his fertile mind and was never intended to reflect the real world, in America or elsewhere.

MassMedia1The

mybb@mybb.ru (ArbAlet69) — Wed, 17 Dec 2008 18:07:20 +0300

The fi rst mass media was the newspaper (gazette). Its name originates
apparently from a bit � gazetta that was paid in Venice in the VI century
for a manuscript report about current events. Periodical prints � Dutch
�coranto� (�current events�), English �news books�, French �La Gazette�,
i.e., that what we call the press, appeared in Europe already in the . rst
half of the XVII century. In Russia its emergence dates back to 1702 - the appearance of �Vedomosti� of Peter I.
The press reflected political passions and social interests of the
groups that dominated in the society. The press was their word, platform
from which they proclaimed their ideas and doctrines. The content of the
latter could easily be read from stock and foreign news, from the reports
about the high life, from the description of local events. However, the
independence of this word overstepped the bounds set by monarchic
persons and governments. The wave of new newspapers and political
pamphlets caused the decision about the censorship. For example, the
Decree of the Long Parliament in England in 1644 had forbidden the
rigid criticism of state structures. However, the bourgeois consciousness
didn�t accept the state control. The idea of press independence arose
apparently along with the �third estate� and was clearly expressed by
the English poet and politician of the XVII century John Milton: �The
state must govern and not criticize me�. This idea inspirited democratic
requirements as well. And already on the engraving from the time of
the Great French Revolution under the name �Freedom of the press�
(according to the Declaration of human and citizen�s rights of 1789)
we can see excited faces of citizens of the First republic swinging with
newspapers.
In the 30-40th years of the XIX century the main part of population
got access to printed news. In the developed countries of Europe and
in the USA the cheap �penny� press became widespread. The French
newspaper �La Presse�, the English �Daily Telegraph�, the American
�Sun� began to appear in at that time mass circulation, taking into
account the information preferences of the audience. Taking into
consideration needs and requirements of the market the production of
news and newspapers became more and more industrial by nature.
The undisguised prejudicialness and sharpness of the press that served
as criteria for effectiveness and expediency of the ideological in. uence
were supplemented by the advertisement and sensationalism which
satis. ed the informational taste of the reader able to buy the newspaper.
However, the relative freedom from the state patronage combined with
openness to the imperatives of economic breakeven and pro. tability. It
happened that the spirit of capitalism that is associated with �freedom�
conditioned other dependences for the press. The power is embodied
by the state-political elite and capital of all kinds which are even today
the most important institutions that sanction the concrete ideological
and value colouredness of the printed word.

At the beginning of the XX century the family of mass media was
reinforced by the radio that has quickly demonstrated the unique ability
to unite the inhabitants of territories separated and isolated by military
operations of the World War I. In Ukraine, the . rst radio broadcast was
put on air in 1924. The radio broadcasting included to the audience the
country-side whose habit to this source and orientation on what was
�communicated on the radio� are still relatively stable at least in our
society. As the sociological surveys carried out in the 80th showed, people
in the countryside listen to the radio more often than watch TV.
The radio waves have substantially decreased the time of news
delivery from the centres to the periphery. Capitals and cities drew near
to small settlements and that changed the idea about the overcoming not
only of the geographical but also of social space. However, the television
had even greater effect. Having started its �epoch� in the system of mass
media in the 30th, already after 30 years it was comprehended in the
scienti. c, cultural, political and everyday re. ection as the almighty tool
of in. uence on the consciousness and way of life. Audiovisual images
that had before been the prerogative of the cinema (also a speci. c
mass communication medium) turned into top-priority by its signi. cance,
easiness of adoption and attraction bearer of social information.
Millions of people in different regions of the world became
simultaneously witnesses of the most important events that happened
in whatever places. The world of politics and science became visually
personi. ed and the viewers began to recognize the faces of their
leaders. The art is delivered to the house. Economical achievements,
state activity, foreign affairs, sport successes and . nally the weather in
London or Vladivostok � everything became visible. The mass audience
that was communicated the news immediately and that was captured
by the television effect of �presence on the scene� turned them to the
subject of discussion in the professional environment, circle of friends
and acquainted. Exactly in such way these events became part of the
historical and social experience of people having the chance to turn
into the phenomenon of collective consciousness.

The technical potential of �new� mass media provides the possibility
to broadcast audiovisual images easily over any distance. The residents
of Ukraine, for example, are able to get the news from information
programs of the biggest American TV company CNN. However, today
such information variability creates a number of problems for the national
television. Aspiring at the monopoly in the information sphere powerful
TV networks and TV services are able to offer and spread among the
mass audience their own views on the world, cultivate their own cultural
models and behaviour patterns. This causes a complex interaction of
cultures that is not always carried out on the principle of a �dialog�.
Such phenomena as diffusion, mutual complementation, rejection,
domination and competition of innovative and traditional patterns are
inherent to it. The latter (traditional patterns) are object of protection in
national states. Another sphere of the state regulation is the progressive
commercialization of TV programs, the glut of advertisement, and the
expansion of commercial telecasting stations network.
One may get the impression that the audiovisual and computerized
mass media have completely monopolized the social communication
depriving traditional sources of the possibility to inform and communicate.
There is a multitude of scienti. c conceptions that consider the prospects
of the society taking into account the technological might of electronic
communication media and their ability to subordinate social phenomena
and processes. In particular, the Canadian sociologist Marshall
McLouen adheres to such position. However, even today the press and
radio still are the common channels for the audience to get acquainted
with the news and evaluation of events. In Sweden, for example, the
party press is rather popular. The news about inner-party relations as
well as relations between parties is usually received from newspapers
rather than from the TV programs.
In the mid 90th, due to the pluralisation of political movements the
similar situation may also be observed in Ukraine. In contrast to the
television that is stately or commercially subordinated the press is the
most accessible tool of propaganda of views and ideas for parties.

Arranged Marriages

mybb@mybb.ru (ArbAlet69) — Wed, 17 Dec 2008 18:06:43 +0300

ARRANGED MARRIAGES
An arranged marriage is when parents, or the eldest male in the family, choose a spouse for a young boy or girl. Arranged marriages are practiced all over the world, some countries include Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, Canada and India. These types of marriages have many positive and negative points.
Both Sides to Our Issue
Some arranged marriages can work-out, but the man or woman may not be happy with the spouse that has been chosen for him/her. If the man and the woman get along, that's excellent, but sometimes there are a lot of differences which can cause problems. Arranged marriages can improve the social standings of a family. In some cases women get the opportunity to work, but women are usually stay-at-home mum. You have to be the same nationality. So East Indians marry East Indians. In the Sikh culture/religion the son or daughter have to marry the same cast (rich marry rich, farmers marry farmers).
Against Arranged Marriages
In some cases the husband can be abusive to the wife. For example, the lady we interviewed, Indy Grewal, said that if the husband and the wife don't get along the husband might beat her. If the sons and/or daughters don't like the spouse chosen for them, they can get a divorce but they get disowned by their parents and are treated badly by their community. The son or daughter can also get disowned and treated badly if they don't agree with arranged marriages. Sometimes the girl/boy get married quite young and that. It�s bad because the daughter gets pulled out of school, which is bad because she doesn't get to finish her education.
Interesting Facts about Arranged Marriages
� In Japan if you are twenty-five and not engaged or married, then you are called "Christmas Cake!"
� In India if you divorce in an arranged marriage your parents will disown you.
� Some people from India wear something on their forehead that is called the third eye. They believe that they can see the world better when they wear it.
� In Pakistan 90 percent of marriages are arranged while in Japan 25-30 percent of all marriages are arranged.
� Some Indian women have taken drug overdoses to escape from the emotions that their lives would bring them.
� In China if you are in an arranged marriage then you are only allowed to have one child.
� In India women can have up to 8 sons.
� Some countries believe that girls take money away from the family so girl babies are killed.
� Some countries believe that boys bring money to the family. It is an honor to have a boy.
� Mostly Chinese, Hindus and East Indians practice arranged marriages.
� In India, some people can tell what kind of cast you are by looking at your last name.
Arranged Marriages in Japan
In Japan, there are two types of marriage: the so-called love marriage and the arranged marriages. The love marriage is the type we are familiar with in the West, where the couple meet independently without the assistance of a go-between or matchmaker. Although the arranged marriages was predominant in the past, the majority of Japanese marriages today are love marriages. Estimates vary, placing the proportion of arranged marriages at anywhere from 25 to 50 percent.
The modern system of arranged marriages is somewhat similar to blind dating in the United States. When a young woman reaches marriageable age (now about 25 for a Japanese woman), she and her parents compile a packet of information about her, including a photograph of her in kimono and descriptions of her family background, education, hobbies, accomplishments, and interests. Her parents then inquire among their friends and acquaintances to see if anyone knows a man who would be a suitable husband for her. The person who does becomes the go-between, showing the packet to the potential bridegroom and, if both parties are interested, arranging a meeting between them. (The man provides a photograph and information as well.) Such meetings often take place in the restaurant of a posh hotel. The go-between is present, usually along with representatives from both families. If the young couple feel inclined, they will begin dating, with marriage as a possible -- but not inevitable -- result. It is not uncommon for a woman to have 10 or more such introductions before she finds the man she wants to marry.
The young man and woman make the final decision about marriage between themselves, though they seek the advice and approval of their parents and their go-between. Some Japanese feel that romantic love is not the most important ingredient in a successful marriage; perhaps this belief is borne out by the fact that the divorce rate in Japan generally is lower than that in the United States. The divorce rate for arranged marriages in Japan is lower than for love marriages.

Generation Gap.

mybb@mybb.ru (ArbAlet69) — Wed, 17 Dec 2008 18:06:05 +0300

Generation Gap.
Most people say that � family is very important for them. They like to repeat that families give them � sense of tradition, strength and purpose in their lives. ''Our families show what we are", they say. Most parents teach their children to respect elder people and observe holidays. But the most important thing for � family is to give an emotional support and security. The right family values help boys and girls to gain confidence and resist the influence of bad friends. Teenagers often consider their parents old-fashioned, unaware of the latest style. As for their parents they do their best to give their children � better chance than they had themselves. After finishing school children often try to get complete independence, they leave their homes and sometimes even their native towns. Staying with parents has its negative and positive aspects but children must understand that parents don' t want to do them any harm. That's why sometimes young people have to listen to criticism from their parents. Some people often speak about the so-called "generation gap" that is � gap in views between parents and teenagers, but the majority of people think that this generation gap is sometimes exaggerated. Very often children feel neglected in their families. When they find cruelty, indifference and misunderstanding in their families they become divide and heartless themselves. As � result children feel hurt and some of them try to escape from the reality by tuning to alcohol and drugs. So all of us should pay more attention to family problems, we must avoid quarrels and look for consent. We must remember about spiritual values and all people should live in peace and harmony.
As for generation gap.
Relations between parents and their children have always remained a very important problem in our society. Parents love their children; they try to do their best to make their children happy. Parents buy all things their children need, but sometimes it is very difficult, because they don't have enough money. So, parents do all their duties to bring up their loved "babies" and to give them a good education. Strange us it might seem but sometime there appears some misunderstanding between parents and children. The problem may be that:
Parents always try to plan their children's lives. They choose clothes, school and even friends for their children. But children want to be independent; especially when they become older. But their parents still think they are children and continue to treat them if they were small and slavish (��). It makes "children" cross and there can be quarrels in the family, because of overcaring.
On the other-hand there are a lot of families where parents don't attend (�� ) to their children. Children need love and care, and if they are not looked after and have too much freedom they want to do something exciting and sometimes it can end badly.
Parents shouldn't punish their children, because it isn't a way of solving problems. They have to explain what is good and what is bad. Children must have good childhood, and parents should try to make friends with their own children. Parents must understand that their children are not copies of themselves. Their children are new people, different from their parents. Yes, I agree that children try to repeat parents' actions and try to be similar to them, but they have their own opinion, and their characters differ from their parents. Parents have to remember that they were children too and must bear accountability/onus for (�� ) their children. Everything has to be balanced.

The theatre
Art plays a great part in the life of our society. No matter what it is: painting, architecture, cinema or theatre. To my mind the last one plays the largest part. "Life is a game" and that's why I suppose it is so. Visiting theatres plays an important part of our cultural everyday life. The word THEATRE comes from the Greek verb meaning "to see" or "to view", whence (��) comes "theatron", or "seeing place". Theatre is a performing art and it includes acting, theatrical costume and make-up, directing, stage lighting, decorations, theatre architecture, machinery and special effects.
A few words about the modern theatre in Britain. London is very famous for its theatres. In fact there are several dozen theatres in London and most of them are not far from Trafalgar Square. The most famous one is the Royal National Theatre. The modern building of the theatre is situated on the south bank of the river Thames and opened its doors in March 1976. Since then it has been an undoubted success with the public. The National Theatre contains three theatres: the Olivier, a large open stage with 1100 seats, the Lyttelton, a proscenium (��) theatre accommodating 900 and the Cottesloe, a small space with a sitting capacity about 400. The NT is a showcase (��) for the best theatre in Britain, offering a program of classical revivals (��), new plays and experimental work.
There are a lot of people for whom theatre is like a drug. They visit theatres very often, always look forward to new performances and try to take part in theatrical life. People who live in this world are called theatregoers. These people simply can't imagine their lives without theatre.

THE GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION OF UKRAINE
Ukraine's area is 233,088 square miles (603,700 sq. km). It's slightly larger than France. Ukraine is mainly a vast plain with no natural boundaries except the Carpathian Mountains in the south-west and the Black Sea in the south. The Dnipro River with its many tributaries unifies central Ukraine economically, connecting the Baltic coast countries with the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea. The mouth of the Danube River provides an outlet for Ukrainian trade with the Balkans, Austria and Germany.
Central and southern Ukraine is primarily steppe (prairie), with fertile black soil exceptionally well suited for grain farming. In the east there is the industrial heartland containing large reserves of mineral deposits known as the Greater Donbas or Donetsk Basin.
Northern and western Ukraine are hilly, forested areas with many picturesque mountain resorts. There are two mountain ranges, the Carpathian on its western border where winter sports are very popular; and the Crimean range, which divides the Crimean peninsular. The Crimea is a favorite destination not only for Ukrainian tourists, but also for citizens of other states of the former Soviet Union, as well as eastern and Western Europe.
UKRAINIAN POLITICAL SYSTEM
The Ukrainian political system has a popularly-elected President, a 450-person single chamber national parliament (Verkhovna Rada), and a Prime Minister, nominated by the President and subject to approval by the Rada. The new post-Soviet Constitution was adopted by Verkhovna Rada on June 28, 1996.
Politically, Ukraine has made tremendous strides toward establishing a stable, tolerant and open democratic society in its years of independence. Ukraine achieved independent statehood when its citizens approved the December 1,1991 independence referendum and the Soviet Union ceased to exist on December 31, 1991.After centuries of Soviet and Tsarist repression, Ukraine today has a largely free press, freedom of religion, and elections that led to the first peaceful, democratic change of leaders in Ukrainian history.
Ukraine held its first presidential elections as an independent country in June and July 1994. In those elections, former Prime Minister Leonid Kuchma defeated Ukraine's first president, Leonid Kravchuk.
Among the key issues, facing President Kuchma, are the rapid implementation of crucial economic reforms, the resolution of disputes over the status of Crimea and the Russian naval bases there, language and cultural issues related to Ukraine's large (approx. 25 percent) ethnic Russian minority, relations with Moscow in general, and relations with the West.
Elections to Ukraine's one-chamber, 450-seat Parliament (the Supreme Council, or Verkhovna Rada) were held in March 1994.
Socialist Party leader Oleksandr Moroz was elected Chairman of the Parliament. The Socialists, Communists, and Agrarians collectively received about a third of the seats in the Rada.
KIEV - THE CAPITAL OF UKRAINE
Kiev (Kyiv, in Ukrainian), the capital of Ukraine, has the population of nearly 3 million inhabitants and covers over 43 km from east to west and 42 km from north to southAccording to historical literature, Kyiv was founded by three brothers Kyi, Shchek and Khoryv, and their sister Lybid. The city was named after Kyi, the eldest brother. The monument erected in their honor, stands on the bank of the River Dnipro.
In the late 6th and early 7th century the first fortification appeared in the northern section of Old Kyiv Hill. While the court of the princes was located on the hills of Kyiv, the lower part of the city, known as Podil, developed into a busy trading district.
With the establishment of Kyivan Rus (the 9th century), Kyiv became its capital.
Prince Volodymyr the Great (980-1015) expanded the city. Kyivan Rus was at its zenith under the rule of Prince laroslav the Wise (1036-54). Monasteries were established and developed into centers of education. Close to 400 churches were built, the most famous of which, St. Sofia Cathedral (1037) has survived to this day. The first library was founded on the grounds of the cathedral.
Today, Kyiv is one of the great, ancient European cities, rich with historic monuments of art and architecture. It is a political, scientific, cultural, sports and industrial center of modern Ukraine.
Kyiv is a major industrial center that includes companies specializing in electronics, engineering, aviation, food and chemical production, etc. Kyiv's economic development has been enriched by its advantageous location along the Dnipro River, which links Kyiv to the Black Sea.
It has many hotels, cafes and restaurants with Ukrainian, European, American and Eastern cuisine to accommodate tourists and business persons. Modern stadiums, tennis courts swimming pools and gyms are available. If you visit Kyiv in late May, you will witness a beautiful festival - "The Days of Kyiv".
PLACES TO SEE IN UKRAINE
There are many places worth sightseeing on the territory of Ukraine because of its ancient history.
A wide range of interesting things awaits the tourists, beginning with Kyiv, the capital of Ukraine, where there exist magnificent historic sights, St. Sophia Cathedral (1017-1031), the Kyiv Cave Monastery (1051) and numerous museums.
A cruise on the Dnipro River offers visitors a fascinating introduction to Ukraine's history and culture.
One of historic places is Zaporizhzhia where Cossack movement began in the 15th century. Nearby is the famous 700-year-old oak tree - 36 meters high.
Odessa, a regional center and seaport, has seven theatres, a philharmonic orchestra, choir, the Opera and Ballet Theatre.
The old town of Kaniv is situated on the high right bank of the Dnipro River. This town is world-known for its Tarasova Hora. Taras Shevchenko, the great Ukrainian poet, artist and philosopher is buried here.
Chernihiv is one of the oldest towns in our country. There are five out of twenty-five architectural landmarks of the 11th- 12th centuries preserved in Chernihiv. It was one of the most important centers of Kyivan Rus.
Another place in Ukraine, which attracts a lot of visitors, is Uman. It is famous for its dendrology park-reserve "Sophiyivka". This park was set up in the period of 1796-1801 by Count Pototsky for his wife, Sophia, and was called after her name. The park is one of the most outstanding monuments of garden architecture in Ukraine.
Prince Danylo Halytsky founded Lviv, a beautiful city in the west of Ukraine. Historically, it is first mentioned in 1256. Today Lviv has an area of 155 square km. Its core is the city of the 14th-18th centuries. It is densely built up with tall stone buildings, many of them in their original style. The Lychakiv Cemetery contains some famous monuments to well-known Ukrainian and Polish residents of Lviv. The oldest monument in Lviv is the foundation and walls of St. Nicholas's Church, built by Prince Danylo in the 13th century. The remnants of Vysoky Zamok date back to the 13th century. Lviv is the only city in Ukraine that still has some original Renaissance architecture.
In the south the Crimea lies, with its warm weather, seashore sanatoriums and rest homes, which has much to offer tourists.
Traveling across Ukraine one can have an excellent opportunity to learn its history and culture, to see its ancient monuments and picturesque views Ukraine has always been famous for.
HOLIDAYS IN UKRAINE
Each country has its own customs, traditions, holidays and important days in its history. Talking of holidays in Ukraine we can't but tell about everybody's favorite New Year Holiday. People think that at night on New Year's eve the old year with all its troubles leaves us forever and the New Year with all our hopes and expectations knocks at our doors. People decorate the Christmas tree, have New Year parties and prepare presents for their relatives and friends.
On the eve of January the 7th, Ukrainians start celebrating Christmas. It's the day of Jesus Christ's birthday and it is widely celebrated all over Ukraine. People sing Christmas carols; cook a traditional Ukrainian Christmas dish, named "kutya" and all the family gathers together to eat it. Then people go to church to listen to the Christmas sermon.
Not long ago Ukrainians began to celebrate a new holiday, St. Valentine's Day. It's the day of lovers, when we give special cards and presents to our sweethearts. This traditional holiday came into Ukraine from the English-speaking countries.
March the 8th is Women's Day. This date was introduced in 1910 by the 2-nd International Conference of women-socialists at the proposal of Clara Tsetkin as a day of the international solidarity of women in their struggle for economic, political and social equality. Nowadays this date has lost its political meaning and became just the day when we congratulate and thank our women for everything they do for us at home and at work, say our good wishes, give them flowers and presents.
Easter Day comes according to the lunar calendar. It's the Day of Jesus Christ's Resurrection. People celebrate this Holiday because He died on the Cross for our salvation. They go to churches to listen to sermons, gather at homes to pray and thank Jesus Christ for our salvation from eternal death into eternal life with Him in Heaven.
On May the 9th, we celebrate the anniversary of Victory over Nazi Germany. People go to the Tombs of the Unknown Soldier who died at war defending our country from fascists, put flowers to the monuments, and in the evening everybody goes to see the holiday salute.
On August the 24th, we celebrate the Day of Independence of Ukraine, which was proclaimed in 1991 on the decision of the Supreme Soviet of Ukraine after the military coup in Moscow.
On November the 7th and the 8th, we commemorate the anniversary of the Great October Socialist Revolution. History isn't something to be rewritten. Millions of people died in an attempt to realize their own ideas of the best state system. We aren't to judge anybody; we are just to pray for the peace of their souls.
On the 1st of May we celebrate the holiday of spring, nature awakening and beauty. We also like our holidays because we always have our family reunion on these days.
Ukrainian official holidays
In Ukraine there are many holidays. Here we listed only holidays which are official days-off in Ukraine.
January 1. New Year. This is everybody's favourite holiday. Decorating the Christmas tree, going to New Year's parties, getting presents, � we love all this and impatiently wait for New Year's eve to come. This is a nice chance to give your lady a present and prove her that she is really very important to you.
January 7. Orthodox Christmas. A great deal of old Ukrainian customs that go back to centuries ago are connected with Christmas. They are fortune telling, singing Christmas carols, cooking traditional Ukrainian Christmas dishes, going to church.
March 8. International Women's Day. This day is hugely popular among women in Ukraine as they receive flowers and chocolates from the men they know. They should not do any housework on this day. It is recommended to send flowers and some gifts to all your Ukrainian ladies. It will be highly appreciated as it is considered to be a sign of your attention (or lack of attention).

Easter Day comes according to the lunar calendar. It could fall on any Sunday in April or May and is full of lovely traditions. Eggs are boiled and then painted brightly in different colours. Very special sweet Easter bread is baked, full of raisins. Often people will take food like the eggs and bread to the church to be blessed by a priest on Easter night. This is the day to stop and think about Jesus Christ's death for our salvation, about what we have to do to improve ourselves and the life around us.

May 1-2.Originally the Day of International Solidarity of Workers, it became just a holiday of spring though communists make their traditional demonstrations on that day.
May 9. The Victory Day. There is hardly a Russian family which would not suffer from Nazis in the Great Patriotic war 1941-1945. There is always a military parade involving all the people who took part in World War II. All the old uniforms are worn with the original medals. Their family and friends give these old soldiers flowers and congratulations.
August 24. Independence Day. In 1991 independence was proclaimed and Ukraine became a Sovereign state. A very important holiday.
According to Ukrainian law, in case an official holiday falls on a Saturday or Sunday, the following Monday will be day-off.

UKRAINE
General Information
Location and boundaries
Ukraine is located in the central Europe at the crossroads between Europe and Asia. Ukraine borders on Romania, Moldova, Hungary, Slovakia, Poland, Belarus and Russia. Having the total area of 603,700 sq.km, Ukraine is one of the biggest countries of Europe.
The country is subdivided into 24 regions (oblasts) and the Crimea - autonomous republic.
The capital is Kyiv (Kiev in Russian transliterations).
Weather
The climate is moderately continental and comparatively dry with more than 290 sunny days in the year in the South Ukraine (Black Sea coast, Crimea).
Average winter temperature:
from -8� to -15� C (between +17.6� F and +5� F)
In Southern regions the winter temperature hovers around freezing.
Falling snow and -10� C (+14� F) is a really rare occurrence, which is usually replaced by a thaw.
Average summer temperature:
from +18� to +25� C (between +64,4� and +77� F), though in daytime can get up over +35� C (+95� F).
For converting Fahrenheit into Celsius and back the following formula is used:
F = (1,8 x C) + 32 C = 0,55 x (F - 32)

Geography
Ukraine is located in East-Europe plain. The most part of the country is in low-lying lands, fertile plains (steppes) with two highland areas: in the South -Crimean Mountains (the highest point: mt. Ramantkosh, 1,545 meters) and in the West - Carpathian Mountains (the highest point: mt. Hoverla, 2,061 meters).
Southern coast of Ukraine is washed by the Black and Azov Sea, coast line is 2,782 km. The majority of Ukrainian rivers flow into the Black Sea, among the biggest are Dnipro, Dnister, Danube, Desna, Pivdenyj (Southern) Booh.
Minural resources: iron ore, coal, manganese, natural gas, oil, salt, sulfur, graphite, titanium, magnesium, kaolin, nickel, mercury, timber and arable land.
Language
State language is Ukrainian. The majority of Ukrainians are bilingual and speak Russian as well. Russian is used widely in the Crimea, Odessa, Kharkiv and Dnipropetrovsk. Among foreign languages the most popular is English.
Food
You would be impressed with quantity and quality of restaurants here - national Ukrainian cuisine, European entrees, Italian Pizzerias or just fast food.
Ukrainian cuisine restaurants become more and more popular with traditional Borsch � red and green, several kinds of Ukrainian Vareniki (dumplings) stuffed with potatoes, mushrooms, all kinds of meat or cheese, Golubtsy (cabbage rolls) - cabbage leaves stuffed with rice, meat, carrot and fried onion, usually served with sour-cream, jellied meat with horse-radish, suckling pig, stuffed fish and plenty of other Ukrainian specialties. Ukrainian cuisine is rich of natural components grown in the fertile Ukrainian Tomatoes, cucumbers, sweet onion, lettuce, peaches, watermelons, apples, grapes - all vegetable and fruits produced in Ukraine taste marvelous.
tricity
The standard electric supply in Ukraine is 220V/ 50 Hz. Ukrainian plugs are of the same kind as in the most European countries � two round pins. If electric appliances you bring have different specs make sure to take a converter and/or plug adapter. To save electric power, in the last week of March all watches in Ukraine are set an hour forward and one hour backward in the last week of October.
Public Transportation
Most Ukrainian cities have extensive public transport system which operates from 6 a.m. to 1 a.m. Buses, trams and trolleys are rather slow, but it is a cheap way to travel within cities. Prices range from 30 kopecks to 2 hryvnas.
Taxi is comparatively cheap for Ukrainian/Russian speaking passengers. Probably everywhere situation with taxi is like this � if one speaks a foreign language price for a taxi goes up. There are numerous taxi services, orders are taken via phone. A taxi or a gypsy cab can be hired right on the street simply by putting out your hand. Services of gypsy cabs are less expensive but are not recommended from the safety point of viever, if you wish to use a gypsy cab make sure there is nobody else inside but the driver and negotiate the price before you get in the car.
Shopping
Ukraine is famous for its high-quality textile, as well as food products and drinks: delicatessen, caviar, confectionery, chocolate, juices, beer, vodka, Crimea wines and plenty of others. Shops and markets trade via Hryvna only. However, some of shops accept Visa, MasterCard/EuroCard. You can identify such places by credit cards signs on the entrance door.
Buying a souvenir, a painting, a sculpture or other handcrafts it is a good idea to get a certificate identifying hal value (its absence) of the purchased good. This document might be useful when going through the customs upon departure from Ukraine.
Working hours
State and public offices are opened from 9 a.m. to 6 p.m. Monday through Friday, with a lunch hour from 1p.m. as a rule.
The majority of stores are opened from 10a.m. to 7p.m. and closed only on Sunday. A lunch hour is usually either from 1 to 2p.m. or from 2 to 3p.m.
As for food stores, many of them work 24 hours 7 days a week, a few � from 8a.m. to 8p.m.Usual work time for cafes and restaurants is from 10-12 a.m. until a last customer leaves.
Most banks are open to public from 9a.m. to 3p.m with a lunch hour from 1 to 2 p.m. and are closed on Saturday, Sunday.

Governmental system
Ukraine is a republic with a constitutional democracy form of government, headed by the President. The power is divided among executive, legislative and judicial branches. The President designates a Prime Minister and regional governors, the Supreme Council can veto his decisions.
Executive branch: Cabinet of Ministers appointed by the President and approved by the Supreme Council.
Legislative branch: unicameral Supreme Council (Verkhovna Rada) of 450 seats.
The Ukrainian national emblem is a golden Trident (tryzoob), which dates back to Rjurik Dynasty, the governors of Kievan Rus.
Geography of Ukraine
Ukraine is a country in Eastern Europe. It occupies an area of 603.7 sq. Ukraine extends from west to east 1300 km, and from borders of Belarus, Poland and Slovak Republic, in the south-west - in Hungary, Romania and Moldova. The total length of the state borders of Ukraine is 7698 km. The geographical point, usually referred to as the "geographical centre of " (equidistant from the west-it tip of Europe and the imaginary easternmost line separating Europe from Asia) is situated in Ukraine, not far from the town of Rakhiv, Zakarpatska Oblast. In the south Ukraine is washed by the waters of the Black Sea and a Sea of Azov.
The capital of Ukraine is Kiev (Kyiv). Natural scenery of Ukraine is picturesque. Recreational landscapes occupy an area of 9.4 mln hectares (one hectare is about 2.5 acres). Forests cover about 14% of Ukraine's territory. The longest mountain range in Ukraine is the Carpathians stretching for 270 km; the highest mountain is the Hoveria (2061 m). The Crimean Mountains are situated in the southern part of Crimea, the southernmost extention of Ukraine (the highest mountain is 1545 m). Over 70,000 rivers flow through Ukraine. The major rivers are the Dnipro (third longest in Europe), the Dniester, Sourhern Buch, Siverski Donets, Prut, the mouth of the Danube is situated in Ukraine.
There are over 3000 natural lakes and about 22,000 artificial reservoirs in Ukraine, as well as many sources of mineral water and mededicinal mud which are used to treat many diseases. Ukraine has 5 National Parks, 15 National Preserves and a lot of smaller areas (dendrological parks, ancient urban and rural parks) protected by the state. Among the bohhest and most important parks and preserves one could name Askania-Nova (Khersonska Oblast); Shatskiy National Park (Volynska Oblast), Sofiyvka (Cherkaska Oblast);Trostianetsk Hydropark (Chernihivska Oblast). Many places of natural beauty can be found in the Carpathians, the Crimea and Polissia.
Ukraine's climate, is moderately continental; at the southern coast of Crimea it can be described as subtropical of the Mediterranean type. Summers are mostly warm dry and winters are usually mild and west. The average temperature in January is -7 Centigrade and in July +19 Centigrade. Ukraine population is 50,5 million, with about 80% of them being ethic Ukrainians. Among ethic minorities are Russians, Belarussians, Jews, Poles, Moldavians, Hungarians, Romanians, Bulgarians, Tartars, Germans and others. Administratively Ukraine is divid-ed into 24 Oblasts and the Autonomous Republic of Crimea. There are 447 town and 28,800 villages in Ukraine. Kyiv, the biggest city in Ukraine, has a population of 2.6 mln; Kharkiv, Dnipropetrovsk, Zaporizhzhya, Donetsk and Odesa all have a population of over one million.
People of Ukraine
The population of Ukraine is 48,396,470 (July 2002 est.) people, which represents about 18% of the population of the former Soviet Union. Ukrainians make up about 73% of the total; ethnic Russians number about 22%. The industrial regions in the east and southeast are the most heavily populated, and the urban population makes up about 70% of the population. Ukrainian and Russian are the principal languages, but about 88% of the population consider Ukrainian their native language.
During the Soviet period, Russian was the required language of government administration and public life. In 1991 Ukrainian once again became the official language, though in the Crimea, where there is a Russian-speaking majority, Russian is the official language. In addition, primary and secondary schools using Russian as the language of instruction still prevail in the Donets Basin and other areas with large Russian minorities. Ukrainian�belonging to the East Slavic language family that also includes Russian and Belarusian�uses a form of the Cyrillic alphabet. It is closely related to Russian, and the two languages are mutually intelligible. Significant minorities speak Romanian, Polish, Belarusian, Bulgarian, or Hungarian.
The dominant religions are the Ukrainian Orthodox Church, much of which retains its links to the Russian Orthodox Church, and the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church. The Ukrainian Orthodox Church (Kiev Patriarchate) is independent of Moscow.

The birth rate of Ukraine is diminishing. About 70% of adult Ukrainians have a secondary or higher education. Ukraine has about 150 colleges and universities, of which the most important are at Kiev, Lviv, and Kharkiv. About 70,000 scholars in 80 research institutes make Ukraine a leader in science and technology.
Some tabular data:
Population : 48,396,470 (July 2002 est.)
Age Structure : 0-14 years: 16.8% (male 4,147,344; female 3,970,343)
15-64 years: 68.7% (male 15,881,821; female 17,366,172)
65 years and over: 14.5% (male 2,341,885; female 4,688,905) (2002 est.)
Population Growth Rate : -0.72% (2002 est.)
Birth Rate / 1000 : 9.59 births/1,000 population (2002 est.)
Death Rate / 1000 : 16.4 deaths/1,000 population (2002 est.)
Net Migration Rate : -0.42 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2002 est.)
Sex Ratio : at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 0.91 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.5 male(s)/female
total population: 0.86 male(s)/female (2002 est.)
Infant Mortality Rate / 1,000 Live Births : 21.14 deaths/1,000 live births (2002 est.)
Life Expectancy At Birth : total population: 66.33 years
male: 60.86 years
female: 72.06 years (2002 est.)
Fertility Rate - Children Born/Woman : 1.32 children born/woman (2002 est.)
HIV/AIDS - Adult Prevalence Rate : 0.96% (1999 est.)
HIV/AIDS - Infected People Living : 240,000 (1999 est.)
HIV/AIDS - Deaths : 4,000 (1999 est.)
Nationality : noun: Ukrainian(s)
adjective: Ukrainian
Ethnic Groups : Ukrainian 73%, Russian 22%, Jewish 1%, other 4%
Religions : Ukrainian Orthodox - Moscow Patriarchate, Ukrainian Orthodox - Kiev Patriarchate, Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox, Ukrainian Catholic (Uniate), Protestant, Jewish
Languages : Ukrainian, Russian, Romanian, Polish, Hungarian
Literacy : definition: age 15 and over can read and write
total population: 98%
male: 100%
female: 97% (1989 est.)
Ukrainian Economy and Business
Basic growth indices

Since 1991, the Ukrainian economy has been exposed to the difficult processes of the transition into a market one.
Ukraine's decline in production was halted in 1999. In the first half of 2000, GDP was up 5% compared to the same period of 1999. Industrial production showed an increase of 10.8% versus the first half of 1999. The highest growth rates of over 30% have been reported for such socially oriented industries as light industry, wood-working and the pulp-and-paper industry. Rapid growth was shown by export-oriented industries with nonferrous metallurgy (20.9%) and ferrous metallurgy (18.6%) leading the pack. In the first half of 2000 indices for the machine-building and metal-working industries have risen almost 9.1 %. Over the last three years, annual inflation has declined to 10-20% owing to the macroeconomic stabilization, inflation having peaked at 10,155% in 1993. The stabilization has benefited much from a rigid budget policy While the budget deficit was 17.7% in 1992, it was only 1.5% in 1999. For the first time in its history Ukraine adopted a balanced budget for the year 2000.

Structural changes

The goods producing sectors (production industry, agriculture, and construction) have declined in their share of total output from 73.7% in 1991 to 52.4% in 1999, while those which render services (transport, communications. trade, etc.) have grown from 28.2% to 48.7%. This tendency is explained by two factors.
First, it is the result of the collapse of the USSR's economy wherein Ukraine's powerful industry served primarily the military-industrial complex. When the cooperative ties that had reached 80% were severed, industrial production dropped at hundreds of enterprises. The lower purchasing power of the population entailed a cutback in production output of the food, light, and construction industries as well as in agriculture.
Second, demand grew for communications, transport, trade, and financial services along with a whole complex of sectors in information, advertising, and marketing spheres. This demand resulted from the liberalized economy and foreign economic relationships and from the need to design new market mechanisms to ensure Ukraine's viability.
The structural changes in Ukraine's economy are similar to tendencies observed in the world economy. Combined with the liberalization of economic activities and the development of small business, these changes complete the first stage in the formation Ukraine's market model.

Investment development

Notwithstanding the adverse impact of the 1998 global economic crisis, business activity is reviving in all spheres of the Ukrainian economy. Since 1991, investment volume has grown. For example, in January-June 2000, investments in fixed capital increased by 21.2% versus the same period of 1999. By August 2000, total foreign investment in the Ukrainian economy exceeded $3.4 billion, that is, 6.8 times higher than in 1995. The number of enterprises with foreign investment has grown to 7,300 (in 1995 it was two times fewer).

National resources potential

Ukraine has only 0.45% of the world's dry land. Yet the bowels of its earth contain 5% of the world's mineral resources. Over 80 types of minerals have been explored and about 7.000 fields are in operation. Ukraine's deposits of iron and manganese ores are the world's largest, while there are also significant deposits of titanium, nickel, chromium, mercury, and non-ore combustibles: sulfur, phosphates, apatites, potassium salts, graphite, and chalk. Among fuel resources are coal, oil, gas, but they are not sufficient to meet domestic fuel needs.
Two unique natural areas, the Crimean peninsula and the Carpathians, offer a chance for convalescence, recreation, and tourism. The Crimea's Black Sea resorts can accommodate up to three million people per season. The Ukrainian Carpathian Mountains are a marvelous site for mountain-skiing and hiking.
The biological productive potential of Ukraine's soil is capable of providing food for 140 to 145 million people.
Ukraine is home over 48,000,,000 residents. Its working population is 22.7 million. Approximately 19 million people are employed in the nation's economy. Virtually everyone has a complete or incomplete secondary education. A major part of the population able to work has vocational or higher education. The highest level of professionally trained workers and employees is reported for urbanized regions.

Foreign trade

Ukrainian foreign trade grew almost continuously in the 1990s and the early 2000s, though considerable imports of power-generating resources burdened much the trade balance with certain countries. In 1995-1997, the total increase in foreign trade was 32.5%, exports and imports growing 38% and 27% respectively. Ukraine slowed its exports during the crisis of 1998 1999. In 2000, the goods and services exports again rose. In January-June 2000, Ukraine's total foreign trade balance came to almost $16 billion. Export volume over this period reached about $8.5 billion increasing by 19.3% versus the same period of the previous year. Imports increased by 24.7% because prices for fuel rose. Ukraine's foreign trade balance remains positive so far.

Privatization

As part of the USSR, Ukraine's economy was based on state-owned enterprises and collective farms in rural areas. Afterwards, the challenge for Ukraine was to decentralize its industrial enterprises and establish a private sector in its agriculture. In spring of 1992, Ukraine's Verkhovna Rada adopted a series of laws that laid a legal foundation for privatization. Since then 70,100 enterprises have been privatized in all the industries, over 80% of which were privatized during the last three years. Among the leaders in privatization are the construction sector with 82% of enterprises privatized and the industrial sector with 69%, with 98% of light industry, 96% of woodworking, and 93% of the food industry privatized.
The privatization of large enterprises and monopolistic enterprises is the most vital challenge today. What Ukraine has to do is to ensure transparent privatization processes and develop adequate legislation. Now competitive cash-based privatization prevails and has become a significant source to replenish the nation's budget. In spring of 2000, Verkhovna Rada adopted a new privatization programme for the period 2000-2003.

Industry

Ukraine is amond the top ten nations in space rocket manufacturing, aircraft manufacturing, and shipbuilding. The capacities of ferrous and non-dozens of countries with metal and metalwork. In national economy, most enterprises are involved in the production of heavy machines, chemicals, and petrochemical products. Industrial production makes up more than 33.2% of GNP and employs about 30% of the population.

Small medium enterprises

In 1987, the revolutionary law On Cooperation legalized entrepreneurial activity by citizens. Twelve years later, the Ukrainian small business boast 197, 000 small and cooperative enterprises, 5, 000 joint ventures with foreign capital, and 36,00 farms. They generate 10% of the total GDP and provide jobs for 14% of the employment-age population. These businesses are initiated on the personal volition of citizens and by privatizing small state-owned enterprises. It is most widespread in the trade, service, and construction sectors.
The development of small business can be further fostered by the improvement of legislation along with the liberation of fiscal and credit policies. Indeed, there have been positive changes in recent years. A state-supported initiative has been introduced to help small business development. A new tax bill is intended to improve the situation by abolishing a number of taxes and decreasing rates.

Agriculture

Ukraine has a favorable combination of climatic conditions, land and labor resources, well-developed transport infrastructure, and close foreign markets. This accounts for the high potential of its agricultural production. The agricultural sector produces 12.8% of GDP, employing a fifth of the working population. Ukraine's arable and farming areas comprise 42 million square kilometers, the largest in Europe after Russia.
Planted crops account for 54.5% of total agricultural output. Among the dominant crops are wheat, corn, sugar beets, sunflowers, legumes, tobacco, vegetables, and fruits. Ukraine ranks fifth in grain crops in the world.
Livestock farming includes cattle, pigs, sheep, horses, etc. Great progress has been made in poultry farming, fisheries, and apiculture.
In agriculture, restructuring began with the first years of independence. Following President Leonid Kuchma's 1999 reelection, the drastic reforms came to the village: the land owned by collective farms is being divided among the peasants, who can not freely manage their lots; conditions are being provided for farmers to expand their farms, and agricultural enterprises are being arranged on a voluntary basis in a fashion chosen by the peasants themselves. 13,300 new agricultural units have been formed, including farms (46%), cooperatives (25%), private and leased businesses (21%). The infrastructure of the agricultural market is introduced most resolutely and consistently on the basis of the wholesale and exchange trade of agricultural produce. An alternatively owned network of processing and procurement businesses is being established. Ukraine is currently determined to reestablish its age-old reputation as the breadbasket of Europe.

Transporation

As indicated by the transit factor, Ukraine ranks among the leaders in Europe. The European Transportation Conference in Crete (1994) identified ten trans-European corridors of which four cross Ukraine. Development of the Transcaucasian transport/communications project (TRACECA Project) to span Europe, the Caucasus, and Central Asia is underway.
Ukraine has the most powerful I and developed pipeline, railroad, and automotive transport networks.
Of these, railroad is the indisputable leader, claiming 50% to 70% of long-distance carriage. Its tracks rank fourth in length worldwide (after the USA, Russia, and Canada). Truck carriage comes second. The most important highways are under reconstruction.
Ukraine's gas pipelines exceed 35,000 kilometers and they are capable of pumping 290 billion cu. meters of gas annually. There are about 4,000 km of major oil-pipelines transporting 90% of Russia's oil to Europe. Construction of the Odesa-Brody oil pipeline is about to be completed in combination with an oil terminal in the port of Pivdenny.
The Black Sea and the Azov Sea play an important role in coastal and international traffic. The most important ports in Ukraine are Odesa, Tllichivsk, Mykolayiv, Kherson, Feodosiya, and Izmail. Aviation operations are expanding and many airports are under reconstruction.

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MONEY

mybb@mybb.ru (ArbAlet69) — Wed, 17 Dec 2008 18:05:30 +0300

MONEY
Aristotle, the Greek philosopher, summed up the four chief qualities of money some 2,000 years ago. It must be lasting and easy to recognize, to divide, and to carry about. In other words it must be, 'durable, distinct, divisible and portable'. When we think of money today, we picture it either as round, flat pieces of metal which we call coins, or as printed paper notes. But there are still parts of the world today where coins and notes are of no use. They will buy nothing, and a traveller might starve if he had none of the particular local 'money' to exchange for food.
Among isolated peoples, who are not often reached by traders from outside, commerce usually means barter. There is a direct exchange of goods. Perhaps it is fish for vegetables, meat for grain, or various kinds of food in exchange for pots, baskets, or other manufactured goods. For this kind of simple trading, money is not needed, but there is often something that everyone wants and everybody can use, such as salt to flavour food, shells for ornaments, or iron and copper to make into tools and vessels. These things - salt, shells or metals - are still used as money in out-of-the-way parts of the world today.
Salt may seem rather a strange substance to use as money, but in countries where the food of the people is mainly vegetable, it is often an absolute necessity. Cakes of salt, stamped to show their value, were used as money in Tibet until recent times, and cakes of salt will still buy goods in Borneo and parts of Africa.
Cowrie sea shells have been used as money at some time or another over the greater part of the Old World. These were collected mainly from the beaches of the Maldive Islands in the Indian Ocean, and were traded to India and China. In Africa, cowries were traded right across the continent from East to West. Four or five thousand went for one Maria Theresa dollar, an Austrian silver coin which was once accepted as currency in many parts of Africa.
Metal, valued by weight, preceded coins in many parts of the world. Iron, in lumps, bars or rings is still used in many countries instead of money. It can either be exchanged for goods, or made into tools, weapons or ornaments. The early money of China, apart from shells, was of bronze, often in flat, round pieces with a hole in the middle, called 'cash'. The earliest of these are between three thousand and four thousand years old - older than the earliest coins of the eastern Mediterranean.
Nowadays, coins and notes have supplanted nearly all the more picturesque forms of money, and although in one or two of the more remote countries people still hoard it for future use on ceremonial occasions such as weddings and funerals, examples of primitive money will soon be found only in museums.
Cambridge Certificate of Proficiency

Discuss: Do you agree with the ideas below? Why or why not?
 Whoever says that money can�t buy you happiness doesn�t know where to stop. (Telegraph Magazine)
 Money is better than poverty, if only for financial reasons. (Woody Allen)
 Business, you know, may bring money, but friendship hardly ever does. (Jane Austen)

Read the text below and decide what ideas in it you agree and why.
They say that money causes most of the miseries of the world, but it also encourages a great deal of ingenuity and hard work. A sufficient income fosters an independent spirit. Friends and colleagues admire a man with money and tolerate, even approve eccentricities in him that they would deplore in a poorer man. The possession of money confers power and others will frequently estimate his intelligence and humanity precisely according to how much a man has in the bank. It is small wonder then that people have come to regard the acquisition of money as a thing worthy in itself. Yet what, after all, can one do with money except spend it and that quickly, before inflation depreciates its value? And how poor a thing it is! In earlier times, they fashioned coins from gold, silver and bronze, but what do they make our money of today? An alloy of cheap metal giving no cheerful jingle in the pocket, and flimsy bits of paper that we might well mistake for the toy money in a children's game. If we are honest with ourselves, we need to answer this question: do scraps of paper and worn bits of metal really represent our heart's desire? We spend our lives worrying about money. Some people occupy their entire working life in counting it. Why do we believe that money can buy happiness, when the reverse is so obviously the case?
Gerald Mosback Practical Faster Reading

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